
Qass- L S G ?^ 

Book 'Sf^S/j ^ 
-127 2- 



EDUCATION: 



ITS 



ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES, 



FOUNDED ON 



THE NATURE OP MAN. 



BY J. Q. SPUPvZHEIM, M. D., 

OB" TUB UNnVKSSITIES OF VIENNA AND FAKIS, AND LICENTIATB 31' THE 
KOTAI. COLLEQE 07 FHVSICIANS IN LONDON. 



WITH AN APPENDIX, 

BY S. R. WELLS, 

CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OP THE TEMPERAMENTS, AND A BEIE? 
ANALYSIS OF THE FHRE>NOLOGICAI, FACULTIES. 



TWELFTH AMERICAN EDITION, 

nCPBOTZS BT TBX AOTBOR, VBOM 7nx THIBB rOHOOS BSXXZ0I7. 



NEW YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL R. WELLS, 

No. 3S9 BROADWAY. 

1872. 

A 
A 






Xntered, according to Act of Congress, in the y ear 1847, 

Bt FOWLEBS & WELLS, 

la th.0 Clerk's OflEce of the District Court for tlie Bouthsrs 



District of Ne-w Torlc 



ADVERTISEMENT. 

The importance of the subject on which 
this work treats, the wide popularity of its 
author, and the universal approbation with 
which it has been received both in England 
and America, are some of the reasons of its 
present publication. 

The real merits of the work cannot be rep- 
resented in its preface. It must be read and 
RE-read to be fully appreciated, and in order to 
simplify and render it still more practical we 
have added an Annpn^^- --^ which will be found 
an illustrated descripiion of the Temperaments, 
together with a brief analysis of all the Phre- 
nological Faculties, which are also amply illus- 
trated, giving a general view of the Science of 
Phrenology. 

Besides having enlai-ged the work, we have 
reduced its price, and so changed its form as 
to render it accessible to all. Parents and 
Teachers, especially, will find it invaluable, 
although great benefit may be derived from 
it by every individual capable of comprehend- 
ing the magnitude of its principles. 



PREFACE 



The mos; important point in Anthropology, or the 
study oi Man, is to acquire a knowledge of his Na- 
ture ; and the next, to discover the mode in which 
his physical and mental constitution may be most 
advantageously improved. Men of eminent tal- 
ents have considered the principles of education 
worthy of their attention ; and many works have 
been already published on this subject. It may 
therefore be asked, Why should another be pre- 
sented ? Because education is still conducted in a 
manner very different from that in which it ought 
to be. Mankind has improved less than we could 
wish. '' There are many books," says Helvetu s, 

"many schools, but few oersons of underitandin j ; 
1* 



PREFACE. 

tnere are many maxims, but they are seldom ap- 
plied ; man is old, but still a child." New eluci- 
dations of this subject, therefore, are still want 
ing ; and I hope I shall be able to suggest some 
new ideas upon it. As, however, many ancient 
and modern philosophers have examined this sub- 
ject, several of my ideas may be found in other 
writings ; but nowhere are they reduced to the 
principles which I have adopted, and arranged in 
the same order. I hope also to succeed in point 
ing out some new objects, interesting in them- 
selves, and leading to important results. 

This, no doubt, will produce opposition. I am 
also aware of the active influence of prejudice, — 
of old habits and selfish passions ; but nothing 
shall deter me from communicating what appears 
to me to be founded on the immutable laws of the 
Creator. His authority is the only one I ac- 
knowledge in natural history. Truth is independ- 
ent of time; it must prevail, though it excite the 
liatred of the ignorant, the weak, and the jealous. 

The reader is requested to bear in mind, that 
the language in which this treatise is composed, 
is to the Author a foreign one. A person so situ- 



PREFACE. 



ated iis not always a competent judge of the nicer 
shades of meaning attaching to the expressions 
which he employs ; and from tliis circumstance, 
together with the difficulty of commanding words 
to convey his ideas properly, he is liable to be be- 
trayed into a tone of abrupt and apparently author- 
itative writing, quite foreign to his wish and inten- 
tion. To these causes the reader is requested to 
impute any thing in the manner of the following 

pages, which may appear not suited to the circum- 
stances OT the subject 



CONTENTS. 



Pag« 

CrENiRA-L View. - - - - - - 1 

Detinition of Education - - - - ib 

Perfectibility of Man - - - - 2 

Improvement of mankind in arts and sciences 4 

In religion and morality - - - - 6 

Causes of the want of success in education - 11 

Singleness of the human species - - 18 

Utility of instruction - - - - - 31 

Division of education _ - - - 34 

£FCT. I. CONDITIONS 0]B EXCITEMENT 36 

Chap. I. On the laws of hereditary descent 3T 



54 

.a 



Chap, II. On the laws of the vegetative 

FUNCTIONS « _ - - 

L>-iration of life _ , - - - 5 

I^eriod I. From birth to two years, or infancy 63 

Temperature - - - - • 63 

Food 65 



X CONTENTS, 

Page 

Ah ------- 69 

Light 70 

Cleanliness - - - - - - 71 

Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise - 72 

Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 74 

Dentition Dietetic rules ~ _ - ib 

Chap. III. On the laws of exercise - - 84 

Habit - _ _ . - . 84 

Meaning of the word exercise - - - 88 

Exercise of intellectual faculties - - 91 

of feelings ----- 92 

Signs, Greek and Latin _ - - - 96 

The means of exercising the faculties are different 1 1 4 

Order of exercising the faculties - - - IIC 

Different success of exercise - . - - 121 

Mutual instruction _ _ - - _ 124 

Exercise increases the organs - - 130 

Chap. iV. Mutual influence of the faculties 

AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT - - 133 

Mnemonics - - - - - - 135 

SECT. II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE 

FACULTIES - - - 140 

Phap. I. Importance of morality - - 14J 
Happiness founded more on morality than on 

intellect ------- 144 

C/HAP. II Each faculty tends to action - 148 
Regulation of the mode in which gratificat on 

should be sought - _ - - t5i 

Proper employment of tfce faculties * ' 163 



CCNTENTS. XI 

Page 

Little effect of precepts _ - _ - 154 

Faculties which assist each other - - 155 

Direction of amativencss and of religious feelings 16^^ 

Objects of education ----- 167 

Chap. III. 3Iotives to action - - - 171 

Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions 173 

Different motives may produce the same action 174 

Selfishness and approbativeness - - - 178 

Chap. IV. Differexces of natuPvAL endowment 185 
Class I. Where the superior faculties pre- 
dominate ------- i6. 

Class II. Where one or several inferior, and 

one or several superior are very active - 186 
Class III. Where certain of the inferior facul- 
ties are strong, and all the superior weak - ib. 
Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling ib. 
Education to be varied with different individuals 188 
Individuals should be placed in situations for 

which they are naturally fitted - - - 190 

Chap. V. Education op the sexes - - 205 

Condition of women - - - - - ib. 
There is a natural difference in the mental 

powers of the sexes _ 1. _ - 207 

Certain feelings stronger in women than in men 210 
Certain intellectual pov/ers stronger in men 

than in women ------ 215 

Chap. VI. Education of vations 220 

Chap. VII. On public and on private education 264 

Conclusion ^66 



Xii CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX 

Page 

On the coRRECTiori and reform of malefactors 268 

Definition of legislation - - - - 269 

Aim of Legislation - - _ _ 272 

Means of preventing crime - - - {5. 

Means of correcting Malefactors - - 280 

Treatment of incorrigible offenders - - 289 

On illegal actions without guilt - - 294 

I. Illegal actions of idiots - - - - 295 

II. Illegal actions of madmen - - - 299 

On illegal actions which admit of extenuating 

MOTIVES ------ 300 

Strong mental affections - - « - 392 

Child-murder -----. 308 

Conclusion -,.---- 318 

APPENDIX TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 

The Temperaments, with Illustrations, - - - 319 

Symbolical Head, ...--- 322 

Definition of the Phrenological Organs, - - . 323 

Importance of Phrenology, .... 320 

Illustrated Views of the Brain, ... 330 

Testimonials in favor of Phre-nolofjy, - - - 332 

Memoir of Dr. Gall, with a Portrait, . . - 333 




ELEME 



PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 



GENERAL VIEW. 



The preliminaTy points to be considered in thii 
general view, are, 1. The definition of the word 
Education ; 2. The perfectibility of mankind 
3. The little success which has hitherto attended 
Education ; 4. The singleness of the human spe- 
cies ;— and, 5. The usefulness of Education. 

As to the definition of Education, I think it 
necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in 
this volm-ne several topics, which are not gene- 
rally considered as falling under Education, in 
the common acceptation of the word, merely de- 
noting instruction in literature and accomplish- 
ments ; I use this term as embracing every means 
which can be made to act upon the vegetative, 
affective, and intellectual constitution of man, 
2 



2 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

for the purpose of improving this his threefold 
nature. 

Being asked what I mean by human nature } I 
reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone, 
nor animal propensities, affections, or passions ; 
noi moral feelings, nor intellect ; neither is it or- 
ganization in general, nor any system of the body, 
nor any particularity whatever ; — but human na- 
ture, in the proper sense of the words, compre- 
hends all the observable phenomena of life, from 
the moment of conception to that of death, both in 
the healthy and diseased state ; or, in short, all 
the manifestations both of the body and mind. 

The next introductory point to be elucidated is, 
whether human nature is susceptible of perfection 
or degradation. 

In speaking of the susceptibility of being per- 
fected, it is not to be understood that man may 
lose one faculty and acquire another ; for the fun- 
damental nature of man being unchangeable, in 
body as well as in the faculties of the mind, such 
an event is impossible on earth. The meaning- of 
the proposition, therefore, can only be, whether 
certain powers are capable of attaining greater or 
ei^s activity ; — whether some of them may prevail 
over otliers; and, »vhether the mutual influence of 
the faculties and their actions may be regulated 
and well conducted. 



GENERAL VIEW. 



In this alter significatioix' alone, the answer is 
-.flh'mative. Such a perfectibility exists in all 
living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for iii- 
stance, may be strengthened, increased, weakened, 
01 diminished. Fruit trees may be modified as 
to their growth, or fruit, their produce. Each 
part of the bodies of animals is subject to great 
variations. Animals, also, arc not confined to 
actions which their preservation requires. They 
modify their conduct according to the situation in 
which they may be placed ; hence they are sus- 
ceptible of a kind of education beyond their wants. 
Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be instruct- 
ed to play various tricks. They have also a 
recollection of what has happened to them, and 
modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox 
which has escaped several snares, and knows that 
he- is watched, takes greater precautions, and 
proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches 
tiie habitations of man, with a view of stealing 
poultry. A bird, whose nest lias been destroyed 
in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of 
placing it, in future, in a more retired situation ; 
and the construction of the second nest is also 
more solid and more perfect than that of the first. 
A doix resists its instinct to run after a hare, be- 
cause it recollects the beating it has previously 
received on that account. The horse avoids the 
stone at which it once has stumbled. There are 
even facts on record of learned pigs and learned 
canary birds. Similar examples are within Mie 



4 EDUCATION OF xMAN. 

knowledge o. every one, and it is therefore unne- 
cessary to multiply them. Yet this power oi 
modifying their actions is not unbounded in 
animals, but limited according to their nature. 
Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be 
taught to hunt like falcons and dogs. 

Man offers similar appearances. The various 
modifications to which his body is liable, are 
known. The manifestations of the mind alsc 
vary in different persons, even in whole nations. 
Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has 
always been essentially the same. The only dif- 
ference, observed at different times, has been, that 
the manifestations of the special powers have been 
more or less active, modified, and variously em- 
ployed. 

The next question is, Whether man, with re- 
spect to his feelings and intellect, has improved 
or degenerated ? By some authors, mankind is 
said to have arrived at a greater state of perfec- 
tion than it originally enjoyed ; while others la- 
ment its progressive degeneracy. The improve- 
ment or degeneracy of the human race, in regard 
to a knowledge of the external world, the prac- 
tice of the fine arts, and moral conduct, are par- 
ticularly to be examined. A detailed elucidation 
of thefee points would require a whole volume : it 
IS my intention only to take a general view o^ 
therr - ' ' 



GENERAL VIEW. 5 

(t is superfluous to mention, that the moderns 
c.ijoy a great superiority over the ancients, with 
respect to every branch of natural history and 
natural philosophy. The Baconian and true meth- 
od of studying Nature, founded on observation 
and induction, has been recently discovered and 
introduced. It has forwarded every kind of posi- 
tive knowledg^e in an astonishing degree. It has, 
however, been unfortunately neglected in the 
study of man, and hence his nature is but little 
known. It is true, whatever it was in the power 
of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by observa- 
tion, to discover, was discovered by the ancient 
philosophers. But the knowledge of man remain- 
ed extremely vague and uncertain, and Phrenolo- 
gy alone will supply this defect, and reduce An- 
thropology to invariable principles. 

In the fine arts of imitation, mode^'n artists find 
it difiicult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they 
seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere 
imitation of ancient productions ; nature always 
remains the best model, inexhaustible in her mod- 
ifications, whilst, by the former proceeding, the 
arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is 
impeded. 

The arts of industry have undoubtedly improv- ^ 
ed, and political economy may be considerd as a 
science of modern days. The state of mankind at 
large is evidcntlv better than in ancient times. 

9* 



6 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

and during the ages of darkness ; and it will still 
improve, in proportion as ignorance and immorali- 
ty are removed, and the laws of the Creator at- 
ended to. 

The improvement oi degeneracy of man, as re- 
gards his moral and religious opinions, presents a 
particular interest, even with respect to his world- 
ly happiness. Both these sorts of notions vary, 
accordins* to the different states of civilization, and 
they are, by no means, stationary, any more than 
the functions of every other faculty. 

Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and 
generally consider all Superior Beings as malevo- 
lent, and worship them through fear. People in 
a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings of 
a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the 
Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be endow- 
ed v/ith all human feelings ; they required food 
and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free from the 
human frailties : he was jealous, often cruel and 
implacable. He had overturned every thing in 
heaven, and reduced the other gods to be his 
slaves. The gods of the Romans were not more 
noble. They were mercenary, and could be 
bribed by fine temples, games, and more accepta- 
ble sacrifices. People of little instruction divided 
the invisible beings into benevolent and malevo- 
lent. Others admitted two principles ; one benev- 
olent, the other malevo ent ; and they acknbw- 



GENERA"! VIEW. 7 

ledged also many inferior deities, a3 emanations 
from the primitive ones. Persons of more culti 
vated minds believe in one supreme benevolen 
deity ; and in inferior spirits, some benevolent 
others malevolent. The most enlightened ac 
knowledged only one Supreme Being, boundless 
in perfection, and the maker of every creature. 

The mode of worship deserves equally a pecu 
iar consideration in the history of mankind. It 
s always conformable to the notions entertained 
of the natiT^e of the Deity. In order to avert the 
wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please 
them, men have made themselves as miserable as 
possible, by mortifications, flagellations, painfuJ 
labors, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and sui- 
cides. To gain the favor of manlike gods, sweet- 
smelling herbs, burning incense, oblations, gifts. 
agreeable impressions on the senses, ceremonies 
which illustrate a prince at his covert, and various 
sorts of formalities, have been ero'/.oyed. 

If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or 
even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the 
purity and sublime principles of true Christianity, 
we shall perceive that the latter are greatly supe 
rior. The Old and New Testament attribute very 
different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their 
moral precepts are very different. The old dis- 
pensation may be viewed as accommodated to the 
Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub 
btirn race 



8 EDUCATION OF MA!T. 

The God of Israel was jealous, reveng'eful, ter 
rible, and a God of war. He was fond of perfume, 
ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense, even 
of bloody sacrifices. I^e commanded his people 
to destroy those who forsook him, or who did not 
jhey his commandments ; even those who kindled 
fire on the sabbath day. NciMie? brother, sister, 
son, daughter, husband, wify nor friend, was to 
be spared, if he served Jinother god. He who 
knew an infidel, was forjjaden to pity, conceal or 
save him ; on the c^/ntrary, it was his duty to stone 
nim. (Exod. xxr.v Deuteronomy xiii.) 

The God of Chr^tians, on the contrary, is love, 
oenevolence au'l charity. He is the father of the 
vvhole o^ mankind, and wishes for universal hap- 
piness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner 
epep.t. He gives the same laws to all, makes no 
3:^ce>t:on, and pays no attention to the appear 
?.Qje of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards 
overy one after his actions. He is a Spirit that 
3annot be confined to temples, and is to be adored 
n spirit and in truth. (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John 
v. Matt. vi. &c.) 

The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to 
.hose of their own race ; they were permitted to 
'ake usury from foreigners, and to hate them. 
David praised God in saying, " Do I not hate 
hose who hate thee ? T hate them with perfect 
'tatred." (Ps cxxxvii: They were ordered to 



\ 



GENERAL VIEW. 9 

form a separate nation, and prohibited from inter- 
marrying with other people. Their food was pre- 
scribed ; many things were interdicted and de- 
clared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon 
had seven hundred wives and three hundred con- 
cubines. The husband was allowed to put away 
his wife ; it was sufficient to write- her a bill of di- 
vorcement, &c. &c. 

How superior and more noble are the principles 
ol Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and 
revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ; 
they command forgiveness of every offence seven 
times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked 
for ; to love our enemies ; to bless them that 
curse us, and to do good to them that hate us. 
They interdict all selfish passions, and declare out 
neighbor every one wiiOx does the will of God. 
Christ asked to drink of a woman of Samaria, 
whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation. 
He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with 
publicans and sinners, and declared those only 
who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his 
mother, sister or brother. 

No food is an abomination to Christians. 
Christ said, "Not that which enters into the 
mouth defiles a man ;" and St. Paul declares to 
the Romans, " I know and am persuaded by the 
Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean in 
itself." Christ permitted only one wife, and 



10 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

in this respect re-established the law as it was 
from the beginning of the creation. (Mark x. 6.) 

Before the Christian dispensation, empires were 
founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and 
frightful destruction of the vanquished. 

Christ declared, that he came, not to destroy 
men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts 
himself shall be abased. He made no distinctioo 
among persons, and considered love and peace 
as the aim of all commandments. He only pro- 
posed the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the 
acceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by 
the sword. He directed his disciples only to 
shake off the dust of their feet, in departing out 
of that house or city where they had not been 
courteously received, or where their words had 
not been attended to. 

The superiority of the Christian principles 
above the Jewish law is evident. St. Paul said 
to the Hebrews (iii.), that " Christ is more wor- 
thy than Moses ;" and (vii. 20.) " by s-o much 
was Christ made a surety of a better Testa- 
ment ;" and, (viii. 7.) "if the first Covenant 
had been faultless, then should noplace have been 
found for the second.' True Christianity really 
improves the moral and religious character of a 
lew. 



GENERAL VIEW. 11 

la regard to morality, it is indeed impossible 
to establish better principles than have been 
pointed out in the New Testament. But since 
these rules, unexampled in ancient legislatloiu 
hava been established, the followers of Christian! 
ty have often fallen back to many of the contempt- 
ible doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im 
portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered 
to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have dis- 
puted, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meal 
on certain days, in the same manner as Mahome 
dans dispute, whether coffee be or be not prohib 
ited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these abuses, 
however, it is certain, that the precepts of moral 
and religious conduct have improved by degrees ; 
and that many selfish and absurd opinions will be 
rectified, as soon as human nature shall be better 
understood. True Christianity will gain, by 
every step which is made in the knov/ledge of 
man. 

Let us now see whether Education is advanced 
as much as may be desirable. Unfortunately we 
find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles 
of Christian morality, and the numerous master 
pieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable truth, 
that hitherto education has succeeded less than the 
friends of humanity wish for. Indeed, if we ex 
amine its influence on the improvement of man- 
kind, a thousand years is like ci day that is past. 
Who has not seen children of the* mc-^t pious and 



\2 



EDUCATION OF MAN 



exemplary parents indulge in scepticism, anc! 
plunge themselves into profanity and vice ? And 
who has not observed that licentiousness often pre- 
vails in the most enlightened and refined classes 
of society ? Who has not observed very limited 
talents appear in the offspring of men of the 
greatest genius ? Now the inferences to be drawn 
from such facts are, that either the education has 
not been adapted to the natural dispositions of 
those individuals, or that every one is not capable 
of receiving the full effect of a good education ; 
and as man, in general, hitherto has little improv- 
ed by education, we must conclude that either he 
is less perfectible than we may wish for. or that the 
true means of improvement have not been employ- 
ed. The latter cause seems to me the most proh 
able, and it may be principally accounted for by 
our ignorance of the nature of man. Plants and 
animals succeed only, if treated according to their 
natural qualities, and the education of man will 
not and cannot succeed, without adapting it to his 
nature. 

Some philosophers have endeavored to degrade 
man to a level with the brute ; while others have 
fancied that he has nothing whatever in common 
with the animal kingdom. By some the faculties 
of man are considered as the result of external im- 
pressions, and accidental circumstances ; whi.e 
others believe that the existence of each person, 
and all the phenomena of that existence, are the 
effects of oredestinatioa. 



GENERAL VIEW. 13 

I shall mention a few particulars concerning the 
g-reat error, according to which the champions of 
education consider new-born children as blank 
paper, on which they can mark every impression. 
But, under such a supposition, why are children 
^f the same family so different ? Why can teachers 
lot communicate their own talents to every pupil ? 
Why cannot every one, who understands the mas- 
Lerpieces of genius, produce similar effects ? Why 
is not every poet a Homer, — every musician a 
Handel, a Mozart, a Haydn, — every historian a 
Tacitus, — every speaker a Demosthenes, — every 
painter a Raphael ? The rules which lead to 
perfection being pointed out, it would be easy for 
every one to put them into practice, if no innate 
pv? vers were necessary. Experience, then, forces 
ua to decide entirely against such speculative as- 
sei lions; those, who have been engaged in con- 
duciiing education, are convinced that they are in- 
capable of producing those talents and feelings in 
children which they could wish ; and those, who 
assert the contrary, maintain only dreams, and in- 
stead of observing nature, indulge in their fancy. 

Many defenders of education wish to persuade-* 
us, that the first impressions in early age deter- 
mine the direction of the mind. I do not deny 
their influence, but it is less than it is generally 
supposed to be. Children, in their early years, 
are almost excli^sively intrusted to the care of fe- 
males, vet boys and girls show from the earliest 
3 



14 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

infancy their distinctive characters ; and this dif- 
ference between the sexes continues through life. 
A marked variety of tempers and capacities may 
be observed in children, as soon as they are sus- 
ceptible of any impression. Children, like adult 
persons, are differently affected by the same ex- 
ternal circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to 
be observed, are more or less permanent. How 
often, in the maturity of age, when the activity of 
the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that we 
are at one time perfectly acquainted with a sub- 
ject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had never 
known it ? How, then, is it possible to believe, 
what individual impressions, received at a period 
when the mind is almost inactive, determine the 
character or the mental capacities of a child foj 
his whole life ? On the other hand, it is wel. 
known, that many individuals turn out very dif 
ferent from what they appeared at an earlier period 
of life. It must therefore be allowed, that the 
above mentioned opinion is destitute of all support 
from experience 

I do not hesitate to maintain, that education 
must fail, as long as we continue to think that 
children are born alike, and may receive, with 
equal advantage, every kind of education. If J. 
J. Rousseau had taken care of his children, instead 
of sending them to the public hospital, he would 
have detected his erroneous conceptions •: he would 
have observed, that Nature implants certain kinds 



GENERAL VIEW. 15 

af feeling ; that education only weakens, or invig- 
orates and refines them ; that children react on ex- 
ternal circ^nnstances, according to their natural 
dispositions ; and that it is necessary to adapt ed- 
ucation to the nature of individuals. Hence, the 
first thing to be done, is to trace back the facul- 
ties of children to their origin. Such a know- 
ledge will contribute to the advancement of art& 
and sciences, and to the improvement of moral 
conduct, by suggesting suitable means for direct- 
ing the energies of children to the objects which 
they are most fitted by nature to attain. "There 
are ^e\v subjects," says Dugald Ste^vart, " more 
hackneyed than that of education, and yet there if 
none upon which the opinions of the world ar{ 
still more divided. Nor is this surprising ; fo 
most of those v/ho have speculated concerning h 
have confined their attention chiefly to incidentc- 
questions about the comparative advantage of put 
lie or private instruction, the utility of peculia 
language or sciences, without attempting a pre 
vious examination of those faculties and principle 
of the mind, which it is the great object of educa 
tion to improve." — (Elements of the Philosopln 
of the Human Mind, p. 62.) 

Another great error in education, also foundet 
on our ignorance of the human nature^ is, tha 
every teacher takes himself as a model for hi« 
pupils. What he likes and learns with facilit}' 
he supposes ought to be equally liked and learne> 



16 EDUCATION OF MAN 

by every other person ; while in every child, the 
feeling's and intellectual faculties, though essen- 
tially the same, are modified in quantity and qual- 
ity Hitherto, on account of none of the systems 
;f education hein^ founded on a correct analysis 
of the faculties of man, education has been con- 
ducted altogether in a general way ; and hence 
almost every individual who thinks for himself 
ivhen arrived at the age of maturity, has found it 
necessary to begin a new course of education, 
according to his individual character and talents. 

Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently un- 
derstood in education, concerns the organic con- 
ditions on which the manifestations of the mind 
depend. This is the object of n new doctrine, and 
is detailed in my work on Phrenology, Vol. I. 

'> Education, though it does not create any iK)wer 
j whatever, may produce great effect ; but for that 
pjirpose its whole system must be changed, and 
this will be done in proportion as the nature of 
man becomes known, and as it shall be acknow- 
ledged that man must be perfected like other 
created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and 
must submit to the determined sway which pre- 
vails in her government. He errs the moment he 
ceases to observe, and begirs to excogitate. The 
construction of a system of education cannot be a 
creative but an imitative process, •which must bo 
founded only on the lessons of experience. Here, as 



GENERAL VIEW. 17 

in the cultivation of every other science, it is not 
by the exercise of a sublime and speculative in- 
g-enuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is by let- 
ting himself down to simple observation, — by re- 
jecting- equally the authority of antiquity, and of 
eminent contemporaries, when in opposition to 
nature ; — by sacrificing every consideration that 
opposes the evidence of observation, and its legit- 
imate and well established conclusions ; — by being 
able to renounce all the favorite opinions of in- 
fancy, the moment that truth demands the sacrifice ; 
— in short, by following only the lights of obser- 
vation and induction. " Does not our happiness 
depend," says a contemporary writer, " on the 
knowledge of the various relations which man 
bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the 
practice of the duties which they impose ; and 
how are we to discover these relations, except by 
the assistance ol reason, operating on experience? 
Can false views of human nature, and its attributes, 
increase the happiness of the human race individ- 
ually ; or can political society, framed on such 
erroneous principles, attain the end for which 
alone society was framed ? ' Deception and nien- 
dacy are always regarded in the common and 
every day intercourse of life as base and odious,-- 
Is it then only upon subjects of the highest iir. 
portance to man^ tnat he maybe deceived without 
darger or detestation ?'" (Retrospective Review. 
No. I. p 71.) 1 concur ent.rely in these senti- 
ments 

3* 



18 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

My ideas on the nature of man, on his funda- 
mental powers ; on tlieir innateness ; on the con- 
ditions of their manifestations in this Ufe ; on the 
moral liberty, and several other points, are ex- 
posed, with details, in works entitled Physiologi- 
cal and Philosophical Principles of Phrenology. 
( suppose these points to be known to those who 
take up this volume, composed merely with phre- 
nological views, and founded on mere phrenologi- 
cal principles. 

In treating of Education and Legislation, it 
seems important to examine, Whether there is 
only one species of the human race, or whetiier 
there are several ? The great variety of bodily 
and mental appearances ; — of features, complexion, 
size, and configuration ; — of feelings and intellect- 
ual powers, — must strike the most superficial 
observer. The causes of these differences have 
been examined, and various hypotheses have been 
invented to account for them. Some authors 
have had recourse to different original species ; 
others have accounted for these modifications, by 
the common laws of nature. It is indeed natural 
to ask. Whether a Negro and a White Man, a 
Dwarf and a Giant, a Hottentot and Lord Bacon, 
are of the same species ? Whether the Cannibal, 
whose earthly and expected heavenly pleasures are 
gratffications of the low animal passions, and the 
true Christian, fill of kindness and boaignity j 



GENERAL VIEW. 19 

whether .be whose ingenuity is exercised nerely 
in destruction and devastation, and he v/ho be- 
holds all creatures as objects of Divine providence 
and beneficence, were originally formed after the 
same image ? 

If there be several species of Man, there can be 
no universal principles of human conduct ; — hu- 
man nature cannot be included in any one system ; 
and the rules which are suitable for one nation 
will not be fit for another. If, on the contrary, 
there be only one species ; — general principles of 
education, general rules of conduct, and national 
laws, may be established. Moreover, if there were 
several species, and one superior to the others, the 
White to the Negro, for example, slavery might 
be contended for as an institution of Nature ; but 
if the species be only one, neither the primitive 
moral character, nor Christianity, can excuse this 
most selfish of all barbarities. 

I will not consider the arguments of those who, 
from inferior motives, without any respect for hu- 
man dignity, and without any religious or moral 
principles, or reproaches of conscience, force 
other people to become the mere instruments of 
their selfish gratification. I shall examine only 
the reasons which natural history offers, in support 
of the one or other opinion : that the human race 
consists of one species, or of several. These rea- 
sons may be drawn from the external qualities oi 



20 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the body, such as size, configuration and complex- 
ion ; its internal structure ; the laws of propaga- 
tion ; and the manifestations of the mind. 

In the elucidation of this important object, it is 
not sufficient to examine the external qualities 
alone. Such a proceeding is like that of Linnaeus, 
who classed the animals according to their external 
appearances, and not according to their nature ; 
or like that of a librarian, who should class books 
according to their shape, size, or binding, without 
regard to their contents. 

Man is found in all climates ; and hence some 
philosophers have inferred that there are several 
species of man. These philosophers reasoned by 
analogy, stating, that each climate has its own 
species of men, in the same way as plants and 
annnals are adapted to hot, temperate, and frigid 
regions. Plants which grow in the torrid zone, 
perish in a cold climate, and those which flourish 
upon mountains, decay on being removed to a 
plain. The rein-deer, say they, is confined to the 
frozen region, and the white bear cannot live in a 
southern climate ; while the elephant, rhinoceros, 
and many other animals, do not prosper in the 
frigid zone. Hence Nature has destined and 
fitted different beings for different climates, and 
she has guarded them against the natural vicissi- 
tudes of the seasons. To this end, in Cold coun- 
tries, animals are protected with more fat, and 



GENERAL VIEW. 21 

thicker hair. The same rule explains why plants 
and animals lose their qualities, when removed 
from their native climate ; and why, in several 
countries, the stock requires to be continually re- 
newed. In northern countries, for instance, flax 
degenerates, and a quantity of seed is annuall}? 
imported from southern regions. In the same 
way, to preserve, in some degree of perfection, 
the breed of Arabian and Barbary horses, fre- 
quent supplies from their original climates are 
requisite. 

Lord Kames, (Sketches of the History of Man, 
vol. I.) one of the principal champions of the 
opinion that there are different species of man, in- 
sists much on observations of this kind, and thinks 
them conclusive. He supports his assertions, by 
observing, that men, in changing climate, usually 
fall sick, and often run the risk of losing their 
lives. This argument, however, is not decisive. 
The plants and animals adapted to different cli- 
mates, are evidently of different species. This is 
not the case with the varieties of men. Moreover, 
as plants and animals can by no means alter, or 
regulate the effect of external influences upon 
themselves, it is conceivable that peculiar species, 
fitted for every climate, should be created. Man, 
on the contrary, is able to remove obstacles, to 
overcotae difficulties, and to modify, in a h jgh de- 
gree, the effect of external circumstances upon his 
nature. On the other hand, the argument of anal 



22 EDUCA^Io^^ of man. 

og-y is not even general ; for several animals, such 
as pig-s, dogs, and others, follow man, and, shelter- 
ed by him, live in all climates. 

It is certain that great changes of climate pro- 
duce diseases. We must observe, how^ever, that 
it is not a great difference of climate alone that 
produces this effect, but that all sudden changes 
of season, weather, situation, and mode of living, 
also expose us to the loss of health. Iq America, 
says the Reverend Dr. SxMitii, (" On the Varieties 
of Men," p. 119.) "we are liable to disorders by 
removing incautiously from a northern to a south- 
ern State ; but it would be absurd to conclude, 
that the top of every hill, and the bank of every 
river, is therefore inhabited by a different species, 
because in the one we enjoy less health than in 
the other. The constitution becomes attempered 
in a degree even to an unhealthy region, and then 
it feels augmented symptoms of disorder^ on re- 
turnino- to the most salubrious air and water ; but 
does this prove that Nature never intended such 
men to drink clear water, or to breathe in a pure 
fltjuosphere ?" It may be added, that there are 
diseases of professions, as well as of climates. 
Shall we maintain, therefore, that there is a spe- 
cies of man for every profession ? Captain Cook, 
Captain Krusenstern, and other na-'igators, have 
!)roved, that, with sufficient care,, man can bear 
^reat changes of air, temperatu;['e, reason, and 
iveather. They have preserved the health of their 



3ENEKAL VIEW. 23 

crews in long voyages, and in the most d/ssimilar 
climates. The human constitution is known, from 
positive observation, to become in time assimilated 
to every climate ; and the offspring of foreigners, 
at length endure, like the aborigines, the external 
influence without injury. Thus, the argument 
that sudden changes of climate have a tendency to 
produce diseases, or even death, does not prove 
that there are several species of man. 

The Reverend Dr. SxMith has clearly shown, 
from another argument, quoted from Lord Kames, 
that the latter was too credulous ; that he was de- 
ceived by erroneous reports of superficial observ- 
ers ; and that he did not sufficiently understand 
the pliancy of the human constitution, which ena- 
bles it to adapt itself to every climate, and to all 
external circumstances. The last remark that 
Lord Kames makes, is a striking example against 
his own assertion. He says, that " the Portuguese 
colony on the coast of Congo, has in course of 
time degenerated so much, that they scarcely re- 
tain the appearance of men." Another assertion 
of his, is a complete specimen of his credulity. 
He is of opinion that the Giagas, a nation in Afri 
ca, could not have descended from the same origi 
nal w^th the rest of mankind, because, unlike to 
others, they are void of natural affection ; kill all 
their own children as soon as they are born, and 
supply their places with youths stolen from neigh- 
boring tribes. Common sense, however, wnild 



34 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

answer, that if such a species weie created, it 
could not continue longer than the prinitive stocl? 
endured. The stolen youth would resemble their 
parents, not those who adopted them, and would 
soon be the sole constituents of the nation. Yet 
Lord Kames thought that the Giagas formed a pe- 
culiar species, who continued from generation to 
generation to kill their children ! 

All organized beings are modified by externa! 
influences, though their primitive nature is nevei 
changed. There is certainly no reason to believe 
that every kind of apple, pear, or other fruit-tree 
which we see in our gardens, has been the subjeC' 
of a distinct creation, these varieties being pro 
duced by degrees. The specific character, how 
ever, is constantly the same ; and one tree cai 
never be changed into another, — an apple-tree, fo' 
instance, into a pear-tree. 

The same law of modification prevails among 
animals. Their size, color, and other q\ialities. 
are very different in different climates. There are 
varieties of horses, eight times smaller than other 
races. Some goats have no horns ; others have 
several. Tiie pigs, also, of Scotland, Ireland, and 
Hungary, are very different, but it would be irra- 
tional to admit as many primitive species of these 
animals as there are varieties. Their specific 
character is always the same, and- a pig can never 
be changed into a sheep. 



GENERAL VIEW. 25 

ody of man is subjected to the general 
laws of orcfanization, wh}^ should it also not un- 
dergo considerable changes, and present great dif- 
ferences of appearance ? This matter, on account 
of its importance, deserves to be examined m.rre 
at large. 

One of the most striking differences perceptible 
in the luiman race, as well as in animals, is to be 
found in the skin and liair, which are in the most 
intimate relation with each other, and indeed re- 
ceive their nourishment from the same blood-ves- 
sels. They vary in thickness and color, and evi- 
dently depend on climate. The ermine and weasel 
change the color of their hair in summer and win- 
ter. The fur of wild animals grows thicker in 
cold weather ; while under the heat of the torrid 
zone, the hair is coarse 

Among horses, oxen, rabbits, and other animjiis, 
some individuals of the same species are brovvni, 
black, or white; and why should it be thou^^MU 
absurd, that there should be also variously colored 
men ? The only difference in this respect betwixt 
man and animals, seems to be, that man resists 
longer the influence of external circumstances, and 
that his skin requires a greater difference of cli- 
mate to change its color. It is a fact, however, 
that heat and extreme cold thicken the skin of 
man and darken his color. We might naturally 
expect, what is indeed the case, that changes of 



26 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the skin produced by climate, should take effect 
in a longer or a shorter time, agcording to the 
iifferent degrees of civilization ; for example, sav- 
ages being exposed to the influence of climate, suf- 
ler its full force ; while civilized nations obviate, 
Dr even greatly prevent its influence. 

Among the physical qualities of man, com- 
plexion is the most easily changed. The Portu- 
guese in Africa are become black, but they have 
preserved their original configuration. The Jev/s 
in northern countries are fair ; they become brown 
and tawney towards the south, but their configu- 
ration does not undergo proportionate changes. 

It seems difficult to say whether the original 
color of man was white or black ; but it is certain 
that white people grow black sooner than negroes 
become white. 

On the other hand, difference of size and forn 
does not prove the existence of several species of 
man, more than that of several animals which va- 
ry greatly in this respect. The swine carried 
from Europe to Cuba acquires double its original 
magnitude. It is the same with the oxen in Para- 
o-uay. Climate, diet, and the manner of living, 
may produce such differences. Young animals of 
liie same litter, treated with care, or neglected, 
vveL fed or reduced to starvation, will be quite 
different in shape and size. Childre'n, when neg- 



GENERAL VISJ^T. 27 

lectcd, are emaciated, sallow, and their features 
ccarse and meagre. The poor, exposed to exces- 
sive hardships, are apt to become deformed, and 
diminutive in their persons ; whilst luxury and 
excess alsaJtend to dehiJitate and disfigure the hu- 
man constitution. 

Determinate feelings, too, when permanent and 
habitual, change the countenance and external 
appearance. 

The most effectual means of producing differ- 
ences, and of preserving those which exist, is pro- 
pagation; and on this subject I shall hereafter en- 
ter more into detail. 

Thus, the external differences of mankind may- 
be explained by known natural causes, and are no 
proofs that there are several original species. A 
sound philosophy never assigns, without necessity, 
diflerent causes for similar effects. Small influ- 
ences, acting constantly, will necessarily produce, 
in time, conspicuous changes in mankind ; just as 
a succession of drops of water, faUing on the hard- 
est rock, makes a cavity. The first alteration in 
the external appearance of man is observed in the 
countenance, the next in the complexion, and the 
last in the size and configuration. 



'D 



It may be added, that nman may live e^e^y 
wliere, the flexibility of his body supporting dif- 



28 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ferent impressions ;— moreover, no obstacle, nei- 
ther river nor sea, prevents him fiom continuing 
his excursions ; — he transports with him animals 
and vegetables, and prepares by art what he can 
not use in the natural state; and he %nows how 
to shelter himself and other useful beings against 
noxious influences from without. 

The internal structure of the body of man, aiso 
indicates that there is only one species. To prove 
that there are several, it would be necessary to 
show that the number of the essential parts is not 
the same in all ; that Europeans, for instance, 
possess certain parts which Negroes have not 
Whoever could demonstrate, that one part of the 
brain in Europeans is wanting in Negroes, would 
prove that there is a natural difference between 
rhem ; I hope, during my stay in the United States, 
tn be able to examine the brains of Negroes, and to 
ascertain that the same essential parts exist in 
them, subject, merely, to modifications, as it is 
the case in different individuals of the white race. 

Another argument to prove that there is only 
one species of Man, may be founded on the mani- 
festations of the mind. Every where, and at all 
times, the same primitive faculties, however modi- 
lied tlie actions flowing from them may be, are to 
he observed. Negroes, ir general, are inferior to 
Europeans; yet some of the former excel in mu- 
sic, mathematics, and philosophy. Blumenbach 



GENERAL VIEW. 29 

(Goetting". Magazine, t. iv. p. 421,) and BLshop 
Gregory have collected the names of Negroes fa- 
mous for their talents. Herder and Raynal, in 
various passages of their works, quote instances oi 
extraordinary virtue and morality, observed amo. g 
savages and barbarous nations. 

It has been reported, that there are nations with- 
out religious feelings ; but more exact inves 
tigation has shown, that religious ceremonies 
existed, buc had been mistaken for mere social 
amusements, such as dancing, singing, and fight- 
ing. It has frequently happened, that descrip- 
tions of savage nations have been given by trav- 
ellers, who neither knew their language, nor 
the signification of their manners and customs. 
Almost all reports of this kind are founded on sin- 
gle observations. How erroneous, therefore, must 
they be, and hov^ little to be relied on, particularly 
when they describe the customs of nations hostile 
to strangers. It is known, that savages frequently 
steal from foreigners, while they continue faithfsd 
to each other, like several criminals in Europe, 
who show great attachment and justice towards 
each other, and rather suffer the greatest torments 
than betray their companions and friends, but wlu) 
do not spare either the goods or the lives of other 
individuals. If a traveller, accustomed to the 
most brilliant ceremonies of religion, were to meet 
with a sect of the followers of Confucius, who 

have neither temple nor priests, nor any %rm oi 

4* 



so EDUCATION OF MAN. 

external worship ; who adore the Supreme Being" 
in mere inward contemplation, and in the practice 
of moral virtue, and he had no direct means of 
communication with them, mig"ht he not easily be 
led to +hink, that they professed no religion what- 
ever r Hence, it is important to distinguish be- 
twixt the faculties themselves and their applica- 
tion. Attachment, for instance, may act with re- 
spect to our native country, — to our friends, — to 
animals, — or to other objects, — yet the primitive 
impulse is the same in all these instances, although 
the external applications are very different. Cour- 
age may be sViown in self-defence, or in defending 
others. He who is fond of approbation, may adorn 
himself with ear-rings, with girdles, with chains, 
or embroidery. Religious people, in like manner, 
may pay divine honors to a bull, to a serpent, to 
the sun, to saints, or to the God of Christians ; — 
they may howl to the glory of invisible beings, or 
worship one Deity, by singing psalms, or by the 
practice of moral virtue, and all of these acts may 
flow from the same primitive tendency to venera- 
tion. 

Finally, propagation is considered as a means of 
determining whether animals belong to the same 
or to different species, according as they can or 
cannot engender together, or as their issue can or 
cannot procreate. Tried by this test, also, we 
must conclude that mankind forn but one spe 
cies. 



GENERAL VIEW. 31 

However, it ought to be observed, that natural 
history can show only the possibility of mankind 
neing derived from one original species, which, 
by degrees, has undergone various changes ; but 
it cannot prove the reality of this fact, any more 
than it can ascertain whether the original color oi 
man was white or black, or v/h ether one or two 
pairs of each species of animals were created at 
the beginning. 

Thus, in the following considerations, I shall 
take it for granted, that mankind is only one spe- 
cies, comprehending various races, endowed with 
the same primitive powers of body and mind. 
Yet, as the sense of smell, attachment, or courage, 
&c., is stronger in one dog, or in one race of dogs, 
than in another; so such or such a faculty maybe 
more active in one man, or in one tribe, than in 
another, though both races are essentially of the 
same species. 

There remains an important introductory point 
to be considered, viz., whether education, princi- 
pally instruction, is useful ; or, in other words, 
whether it is better to leave the common people 
In ignorance, or to instruct all classes of society } 

To answer this query in a satisfactory manner 
et us remember that the human mind embraces 
''eelircrs and intellectual faculties ; that intellect 
does not produce feelings, but that the latter are 



32 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the main causes of our actions. Hence it is a great 
mistake to confine education to intellectual in- 
struction. Education, then, if well conducted, em- 
braces both feelings and intellect, and improves 
both the body and mind. A few observations, 
however, wiU. prove that intellectual education i« 
preferable to ignorance. 

There is a great difference in the actions of al. 
nations, through the different states of civilization. 
The history of each at the beginning is stigmatiz-ed 
with assassination, parricides, incest, and violation 
of the most sacred oaths. The selfish passions, 
then, appear to have enjoyed an overwhelming 
power ; and all enjoyments sprung from the grati- 
fication of the lower propensities. In periods of 
ignorance, too, all nations confined moral virtue 
to themselves, and supposed the rest of nature 
destined to be their prey. Legislation, corres- 
ponding with the national character at the begin- 
ning, is sanguinary; and capital punishment is 
common. Nay, it falls not on the criminals alone, 
but also on their relations, and on whole districts. 
Their religion is founded on terror, their gods 
are endowed with all the lower feelings and adec- 
tions such asselfishness, jealousy, wrath, and fond- 
ness for dreadful actions and expiatory sacrifices. 
If they hope for immortality, the scenes v/hich 
they expect are conformable to their actual feel- 
ings ; triumph over enemies, gratification of lowef 
passions, and sensual pleasures. The whole teii 



GENERAL VIEW. 33 

dency of the mind is atrocity ; and their actions 
miffht almost be denominated a series of horrid 
crimes. I doubt whether those, who consider the 
savage state so worthy of commendation, would 
be disposed to give up the comforts of civilization, 
and be satisfied with the food, clothing, habita- 
tions and accommodations of Barbarians ; whether 
they would prefer roots, acorns, nuts, insects and 
other animals, at the sight of which we shudder, 
as their food, tc the preparation of a skilful cook • 
whether they would be better pleased with clothes 
made of the skins of animals, of leaves or of grass, 
than with woollen, cotton, linen, or silk habili- 
ments ? Whether they would like to exchange 
our comfortable rooms for a hollow tree, for the 
cavity of a rock, a den under ground, a hut of 
reeds, or of turf and branches of trees ? Finally, 
Whether they would seriously think the rough at- 
tempts of savages at painting and sculpture, equal 
to the statues of Phidias, and the paintings of 
Raphael ? 

In following the history of mankind, we observe, 
that, in proportion as nations cultivate their moral 
and intellectual powers, atrocious actions diminish 
in number ; the manners and pleasures become 
more refined, the legislation milder, the religion 
purified from superstition, and the arts address 
tliemselves to the finer emotions of the mind. 

By observing also the different classes of society, 
and%he inhabitants of diiferent provinces, we 



34 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

learn, that ignorance is the greatest enemy of ino» 
rahty. Wherever education is neglected, de- 
pravity, and every kind of actions which degrade 
nrankind, are the most frequent. Among ignorant 
persons, cceteris paribus, rapacity, cheating, and 
thieving, drunkenness, and sensual pleasures, are 
prominent features in the character. 

Those, then, who object to the instruction of 
the lower orders, can merely act from selfish mo- 
tives. Being aware of their superiority, they may 
wish the inferior classes to be obedient to their 
arbitrary regulations ; for, unquestionably, it is 
much easier to lead the ignorant and uncultivated 
than the instructed and reasoning people. Know- 
ledge, too, and the habit of reflection, detect abuses 
and errors, which selfishness and pride may wish 
to keep concealed. But whoever thinks it right 
to cultivate his own mind, cannot with justice 
desire others to remain in ignorance. He, there- 
fore, who is versed in history, or understands the 
law of Christian charity, will join those who con- 
tend for the benefit of an instruction, adapted to 
every class of society. This, then, will not be 
confined to reading and writing, but particularly 
extended over the moral conduct, and all duties 
and rights m practical life. 

The education of the body is called Physical, 
that of the mind, Moral. It is impossi"ble to de- 
cide by observation, whether education modifies 



GENERAL VIEW. 35 

the mind itself. We can only show, that we may 
exercise an influence on the instruments, by wnich 
the powers of the mind manifest themselves. 
Hence, the study of the organization is necessary, 
even with respect to the moral education of man ; 
and for that reason, I avoid the common division 
of education into physical and moral, though ! 
find it proper to divide the following considera- 
tions on education into two Sections. In the first, 
1 shall speak of the conditions which contribute 
to the greater or less activity of the powers of the 
body and of the mind ; and in the second, of their 
aim and direction. 



S8 



SECTION I. 

ON THE CONDITIONS OF EXCIT^EMENT ; OR THOSE 
WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE ACTIVITY OF THE IN- 
NATE POWERS OF THE BODY AS V» ELL AS OF THE 
MIND. 

These important inquiries are not sufficiently 
understood, and are, therefore, too generally alto- 
gether overlooked. They, however, deserve the 
most serious attention of every natural philoso- 
pher. Our reflections on them may be divided 
into four Chapters, corresponding* to the natural 
divisions of the conditions of excitement them- 
selves. The first condition is founded on the 
Laws of Hereditary Descent ; the second on those 
of the Vegetative Functions ; the third on Exer- 
cise ; and the fourth on the Mutual Influence of 
the Powers. 



3*. 



CHAPTER I. 



H THE LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 

i Ah development of the human body is favor 
ed, retarded, or disordered, according to the gen- 
eral laws of organization, in the same way as thai 
of other living beings. Consequently, children 
participate in the bodily configuration and consti- 
tution of their parents, and also in their tenden- 
cies to particular manifestations of the mind, these 
bein^ dependent on the individual parts of the 
brain. The elucidation of these subjects is indis- 
pensable to a sound system of education. Nay, I 
am convinced, that this condition exerts a greater 
and more permanent influence than any other, 
which can be introduced with the view of perfect- 
ing mankind. Let us first consider how other or- ^ 
ganized beings are improved. 

Florists, pomologists, and horticulturalists, are 
aware that Nature produces the varieties of plants, 
and they observe the circumstances which are fa- 
vourable to the improvement of certain qualities. 



38 EDUCATlOf^ 9F MAN. 

They know that the first anc most important point 
is ripe and wel -conditioned seed ; — the second, a 
fertile and convenient soil. In short, it is a fact, 
that, in order to improve the vegetable kingdom 
propagation is attended to. 

In perfecting animals, or in promoting their pecu 
liar qualities, such as the color or figure of horses, 
the wool of sheep, the smell of dogs, &c., country 
people have recourse to the laws of propagation. 
By these means, farmers have succeeded in dimin- 
ishing or increasing various parts of animalsj such 
as their bones, muscles, &c. 

We might naturally suppose, that it would bo 
sufficient to mention the fact, that the organization 
of man is submitted to the same general laws as 
that of animals, to induce reasonable beings to 
take at least the same care of their own offspring 
as of their sheep, pigs, dogs, and horses. But man 
wishes to make himself an exception from the im- 
mutable laws of the Creator, and the result of his 
ignorance and self-conceit is lamentable. As this 
subject is of the utmost importance, I shall enter 
into a few details upon it. 

For the sake of bodily health, many natural 
philosophers, a long time ago, insisted on the ne- 
cessity of a better regulation of marriage. Their 
oenevolent desire was supported by the constant 
observation that health depends on organization, 



LAWS OK tiLRKDiTARV Dr.sc;:.\T. 39 

and that the latter is propagated by birth. " Sir 
John Setrigfit," says Dr. Adams, (On the Pre- 
tended Hereditary Diseases, p. 33.) " informs us, 
that if a flock of sheep, in which there is any de- 
fect, are permitted to breed in and in, the defect 
will gradually increase among them ; and Colonel 
Humphries, by selecting for breeding a marked 
variety, lias succeeded in procuring a flock with 
deformed bones." Dr. Adams adds, that if the 
same causes operate in m*an, we may impute to it 
many endemic peculiarities found in certain dis- 
tricts, which have hitherto been imputed to the 
water, and other localities. 

Those who have naore confidence in facts than 
in speculative reasoning, cannot doubt that the 
qualities of the body are hereditary. There are 
family-faces, family-likenesses ; and also single 
parts, such as bones, muscles, hair and skin, 
which resemble in parents and in children. The 
disposition to various disorders, as to gout, scrofu- 
la, dropsy, hydrocephalus, consumption, deafness, 
epilepsy, apoplexy, idiotism, insanity, &c., is fre- 
quently the inheritance of birth. There are few 
families where there is not one part of the bodi^ 
weaker than the rest, — the lungs, for instance, 
the eyes, the stomach, liver, intestines, some oth- 
er viscus, the brain, &c. 

Children born of healthy parents, and belong- 
ing to a strong stock, always bring into the world 



40 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

a system formed by nature to resist the causes of 
disease ; while the children of delicate, sickly 
parents, are overpowered by the least unfavorable 
circumstance. Medical men know very well, that 
in curing" diseases, nature is oftentimes more pow- 
erful than art, and that the latter is ineffectual, if 
not assisted by the former. Longevity also de- 
pends more on innate constitution than on the 
skill of physicians. Is it not then astonishing, 
that this knowledge, as a practical piece of infor- 
mation, is not taught to, and disseminated among 
young people ? Indeed, it ought to be familiarly 
and generally known ; not because it is expected 
that every one would be reasonable enough to 
regulate his conduct by it, but in order to induce 
as many as possible to do so. A great number a^^e 
too selfish to be guided in their own enjoyments 
by a regard to the condition of their offspring; but 
many, on the other hand, who reflect on the fu- 
ture, may be induced to avoid, even from a selfish 
motive, a union with a person who will be likely to 
embitter their future days. Even the unthinking 
must perceive, that the enjoyments of life are ren- 
dered impossible, when diseases make their rava- 
ges in a family ; and that love for the most part 
ceases, when poverty takes up its abode in the 
house. Others, who wish to live in their posteri- 
ty, will, when acquainted with the immutable laws 
of tlie Creator, submit to them, in order to lay a 
foundation for the prosperity of their descendants. 
The physical education, then, of both sexes de- 



LAWS OF Hc^EDITARY bESCLNT. 4l 

serves the greatest attention, and it is impardona- 
ble to neglect that of girls. 

The laws of hereditary descent should be at- 
tended to, not only with respect to organic life, 
but also to the manifestations of the mind, since 
these depend on the nervous system. There are 
many examples on record, of certain feelings, or 
intellectual powers, being inherent in whole fami- 
lies. Now, if it be ascertained that the hereditary 
condition of the brain is the cause, there is a great 
additional motive to be careful in the choice of a 
partner in marriage. No person of sense can be 
indifferent about having selfish or benevolent, stu- 
pid or intelligent children. 

An objection may be made against the doctrine 
of hereditary effects resulting from the laws of pro- 
pagation, viz. That men of great talents often have 
children of little understanding, and that in large 
families there are individuals of very different ca- 
pacities. 

This observation shows at least that the clul- 
dren are born with different dispositions, pnd it 
proves nothing against the laws of propagation. 
The young ones of animals that propagate iiidis- 
criminately, are very different ; but when the 
races are pure, and all conditions attended to, tlu" 
nature of the young can be determined before 



5* 



4^ EDUCATION OF MAN 

hand. As long as the races of mankind are mix- 
ed, their progeny must vary extremely. But let 
persons of determinate dispositions breed in and 
in, and the races will become distinct. Moreover, 
the condition of the mother is commonly less val- 
ued than it ought to be. It is, however, observed, 
that boys commonly resemble their mother, and 
girls their father; and that men of great talents 
generally descend from inteUigent mothers. But 
as long as eminent men are married to partners of 
inferior capacities, the qualities of the offspring 
must be uncertain. The Arabs seem to understand 
the great importance of females, since they do not 
allow to sell a female horse to foreigners, and note 
the nobility of their horses after the females. 

The age of propagation too is not indifferent. 
Animals are not permitted to propagate at all ages, 
neither too young nor too old, but in the period of 
their strength. Men of talents and science often 
marry when their body, particularly the nervous 
system, is exhausted by protracted studies and 
debilitating causes. They are seldom rich from 
birth, and their condition rarely allows them to 
choose daring the period of their greatest energy ; 
yet tljey might often accomplish more than they 
do to the benefit of their offspring, were they bet- 
ter acquainted with the laws of the hereditary de- 
scent, and the dependence of the mind on the or- 
ganization of the body, and would they submit to 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45 

appreciate such laws more than fashionable man- 
ners and customs. 

The age of the parents is to be considered both 
in regard to their own health, and to the constitu- 
tion of their children. Young trees which bring 
forth fruit are weak; animals that propagate theii 
species too early in life, generally do not grow 
strong. Many women who marry when very 
young, and bear a very numerous family, become 
early victims to an exhausted constitution. 

Farther, the fruit of young plants is imperfect. 
The eggs of young birds are very small ; the pro- 
geny of young quadrupeds is feeble and diminu- 
tive ; and, in like manner, the offspring of living 
beings, when old, is Vv^eak. Such a progeny, 
therefore, is never destined, by country people, to 
the preservation of the species. Moses forbade 
the Jewsr to bring up the firstling males of animals. 
(Deut. XV. 19 — 23.) When both parents marry 
early in life, and have a numerous family, the el- 
dest children commonly possess less talent that! 
those who are born during the period of vigor of 
their parents. 

The laws of degeneration belong to those of he- 
reditary descent, and deserve a peculiar attention. 
They again are general throughout all nature. 
Plants cultivated on the same spot degenerate. 
Wheat must alternate with barley, flax, potatoes. 



44 EDUCATIOIS OF MAN. 

or other p.ants. Where firs will 113 longer grow 
beeches will succeed. The seed of plants that ds 
fTfenerate, ought not to be taken for propagation 
(or they at length perish entirely: nor ought th 
sickly organization of one tree to be engrafted o\ 
another. In this way, we see an explanation win 
the same sort of fruit-trees dies in whole districts, 
the external circumstances of which are unfavora- 
ble. The sickly condition of the tree is constant 
ly propagated, and it dies at last by the continua" 
and noxious influence frc*?j without. All trees, or 
parts of the same tree, perish a little sooner, or 
resist a little longer than others, on account of the 
influence of the branch on which they are en- 
grafted. 

The same law of degeneration prevails in ani- 
mals. Various circumstances weaken their con- 
stitution, and, among various conditions, to pre- 
vent degeneration, it^ is necessary to cross the 
breed, and to renew the blood. 

The degeneration of man, too, is certain, in fam- 
ilies who intermarry among themselves. Uncles 
and nieces, or first cousins, or cousins who commit 
this error for several generations, have no chil- 
dren, or their progeny is commonly feeble. The 
smaller the number of choice, the quicker the de- 
generation takes olace, and no class of society can 
be made an exception from this lq,w. .Any bodily 
r»r mental affliction which may happen to originate 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45 

n one individual soon affects such families. This 
frequently happens among the rich and high 
ranks; and, as their manner of living is not con- 
ducive to bodily strength, it is quite natural that 
tiiere should be so many living proofs of the truth 
of tliis proposition, which invites the friends of hu- 
manity to admire the law of compensation. 

The great influence of propagation is ascertain 
ed also by the fact, that it is infinitely more easy 
by it to keep up natural changes, and even deform- 
ities, than to produce them by art. Deaf people 
often have children with the same defect ; while 
circumcision among the Jews and Mahomedans 
has not yet become superfluous. It is more proba- 
ble that a man born without an arm, should have 
children like himself, than that he should do sc 
whose* arm has been taken off by the knife of the 



sursreon. 



The laws of hereditary descent are still visible, 
since the greater number of first-born children are 
girls ; since, in one year more girls, in another 
more boys are born ; since, when old and weak 
men marry young and vigorous females, the great- 
er number of their children are girls, &c. These 
effects must have adequate causes, and by more 
patient attention to the phenomena than has hith- 
erto been paid, some valuable conclusions might 
be arrived at. May not the particular and tran- 
sient state of the same parents, at different periods 



46 EDIICAT. ON OF MAN 

account m some degree, for the differences in tneir 
children ? At all events, the bodily constitution 
of both parents, in every respect, ought to be at 
tended to. Moses (Leviticus xii. 2d & 5th) or- 
dered a longer period for the purification of a girl 
than for that of a boy. Is there a natural reason 
for his having done so ^ Can any inference be 
drawn from the observation, that the greatest 
number of monsters are amongst the female sex ? 

It is indeed a pity that the laws of hereditary 
descent are so much neglected, whilst, by atten 
tion to them, not only the condition of single 
{"aniilies, but of whole nations, might be improved 
beyond imagination, in figure, stature, complexion, 
health, talents, and moral feelings. I consider 
with Aristotle, that the natural and innate dif- 
ferences of man are the basis of all political econo- 
my. He who can convince the world of the im- 
portance of the laws of hereditary descent, and in- 
duce mankind to conduct themselves accordingly, 
will do more good to them, and contribute more 
to their improvement, than all institutions, and 
all systems of education. Yet they embrace more 
til an a choice, according to the beauty of con- 
figuration and to the vigor of body and mind. 
I'he state of health of both parents, their age, 
their previous manner of living, contribute to the 
development of the embryon ; and the state of 
health of the mother and her vital functions, as 
digestion, respiration, circulation, &c. during preg 
nancy as likewise of great weight. 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 47 

^' It is probable," says Dr. Rush, '' that the 
qualities of body and mind in parents, which pro- 
duce genius in children, may be fixed and regula- 
ted ; and it is possible the time may come, when 
we shall be able to predict with certainty the in- 
tellectual character of children, by knowing the 
specific nature of the different intellectual faculties 
of their parents. The marriages of Danish men 
with the East Indian women produce children 
that iiad the countenances and vigorous minds of 
Europeans ; but no such results appeared in the 
children of the East Indian women who intermar- 
ried with the males of any other European nation." 
(" On the Influence of Physical Causes on the In 
tellectual Faculties," p. 119.) 

Three successive generations appear to be neces- 
sary to produce an effectual change, be it for health 
or disease. " Si le goitre," says Dr. Fodere, 
" n'est qu' accidental, et qu'il n'y ait qu'un des 
parens affecte, les enfans ne naissent pas goitreux. 
Si de pere en fils un goitreux a epousa une goi- 
trcuse pendant deux generations, et dans un pays 
ou le goitre est endemique, a la troisieme genera- 
tion Penfant qui nait, n'est pas seulement goitreux, 
mais il est encore cretin." (" Traite du Goitre, et 
du Cretinisme," Paris, 1800, p. 69.) According 
to the laws of the creation, therefore, it is said, 
that "the Lord visits those who hate him (in my 
opinion vv^ho do not submit to his laws,) to the 
third and fourth generation ;" viz. by their here j 
itarv disDositions 



48 r.lJ.J'J.VTlON OF MAN. 

Such causes as produce what is called the old 
age of natioriS deserve to be remarked. Luxury 
belongs to them, and its influence, if continued 
during- several generations, weakens body and 
mind, not only of families, but of whole nations. 
The degeneration of the organic condition of man, 
in general, is not sufficiently understood, and is ol 
greater effect than the political economists of 
modern days are av/are of. This neglect is un- 
doubtedly the most influential cause why families 
and nations disappear. 

The Reverend Dr. Smith, who ascribes par- 
ticularly the variations of man to external cir- 
cumstances, says, " that Germans, Swedes, and 
Frenchmen in different parts of the United States, 
who live chiefly among themselves, and cultivate 
the habits and ideas of the countries from which 
they emigrated, retain, even in our climate, a 
strongresemblance to their primitive stock. Those, 
on the contrary, who have not confined themselves 
to the contracted circle of their countrymen, but 
have mingled freely with the Anglo-Americans, 
entered into their manners, and adopted their 
ideas, have assumed such a likeness to them, that 
it is not easy now to distinguish, from one another, 
people who have sprung from such different ori- 
gins. 

On a closer examination, it will be found, that 
one stock may adopt the manners of another, a 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY LKSCENT. 49 

Saxon, ibr instance, the ras!ii.)ns of the French, 
but that the original features of ihe trihes wiL 
l)e preserved, as long- as they do not intermarry. 
The genuine races of Flighlanders ;and Lowland- 
ers of Scotland will not loose their originality by 
exchanging their countries, but by interoiarryiu^: 
with eacli other. 

The Jews are a striking example, that climate 
and external influences are less powerful in chang- 
ing man than propagation. They are dispersed 
in every country of the globe, and though, owing 
to the climate they have inhabited, their com- 
plexion may have changed, yet, being prohibited 
by sacred institutions from intermarrying witli 
other* nations, they are still distinguishable from 
other people. 

The ancient legislators were very attentive to 
the laws of propagation. Moses complains (Gen. 
vi.) that the sons of God saw the daughters of 
men, that they were fair, that they tDok them 
wives of all which they chose : he divided his 
people into tribes, but prohibited, on pain of death, 
ihe intermarriage of the near relations. (Levit. 
jcviii.) 

The Greeks, as appears from their customs, 

philosophy and legislation, had particularly in 

view the beauty and vigor of the human constitu 

tior. *' As we,'' says Plutarch, (" De Nobili 
6 



50 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

tate,") '^ are aaxious to have dogs and horses from 
a good hreedj why should we marry the daugh- 
ters of bad parents." Plato spoke against mar- 
riages betwixt relations. He, as well as Solon 
and Aristotle, considered also the age at which 
it was best to marry. The ancient philosophers 
commonly fixed it between eighteen and twenty- 
four for a woman, and between thirty and thirty- 
six for a man. 

It may be replied, that these considerations 
can never become practical rules of conduct for 
i5ociety at large. In the actual situation of things 
I will not maintain the contrary. But we must 
also admit, that the laws of the Creator will not 
change to gratify our fancy. If we will not sub- 
mit to his dictates, w^e have no right to complain 
of being punished by unavoidable, though dis- 
ngreeable results. Christian principles are not 
sufficiently exercised in society, yet it is not, on 
this account, considered superfluous to teach 
them and he who loves mankind will wish for 
their promulgation. Now, the laws of hereditary 
descent are in the same situation. Nay, if ob- 
served, they would even tend to prepare mankind 
to receive and keep the precepts of Christianity, 
which, in the actual and common way of Provi- 
dence, seems impossible. 

I find it also necessary to obviate another 
objection which may be made by religious per 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 51 

sons, who are not aware that the letter kills^ 
while the spirit vivifies. Some, who are entirely 
unacquainted with natural causes, and who expect 
all from supernatural influence, may be offended 
by so much being ascribed to the laws of organi- 
zation. If they reflect, and will be consistent 
with themselves, they cannot reject any thing 
that is in nature, and the work of the Creator. 
The organization is constituted by the same Al- 
misfhty Being v.'honi they implore to be propi- 
tious. If they will submit to Him, they must ac- 
knowledge every law of creation. The primary 
arrangements of Nature as certainly proceed from 
Him., as any subsequent revelation. Shall we, 
then, have no recourse to natural means to cure 
diseases, because St. James has admonished us, 
if any one is sick, to call for the elders of the 
church, to let them pray over him, anointing him 
with oil ^ We read in the old Testament, that 
Elias prayed that it might not rain, and it rained 
not on the earth for the space of three years and 
nix months ; and he prayed again, and the heavens 
gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. 
Shall we theiefore not study the laws of vegeta- 
tion, and cultivate the vegetable kingdom ? Shall 
we neglect to sow, and expect that by means of 
prayers we shall be permitted to rear ? In the 
same way, if, while we say prayers, we do not 
at the same time submit to the laws of hereditary 
descent and of organization, supernatural influence 
alone will not <?ive talents nor bodily health. The 



52 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

laws of the Creator have been the first dictated, 
and must be the first obeyed. A parent who per- 
ceives that his child is aflected with diseai^e and a 
weak constitution, and who, v/hile he prays to 
God for restoration of his health, leaves him in 
confined air, and under tlie charge of careless or 
ignorant servants, has no right to expect that su- 
pernatural influence will be exerted in his favor, 
while he continues to neglect his own duty in con- 
temning the first laws of creation. The Supreme 
Being gave us understanding, that we might per- 
ceive these laws ; and having perceived them,>it is 
our first duty to obey them as His dictates ; and 
having done so, we may then, but not till then, 
expect His blessing to attend us. The special obe- 
dience to the natural laws of hereditary descent, 
is an indispensable condition to the improvement 
of mankind ; and nothing but ignorance, supersti- 
ion and prejudice can oppose it. 

The influence of these laws may be shown to 
young persons, first in plants, then in animals, 
and at the end in mankind. Many parents are 
cautious and fearful of speaking of such notions to 
their children, and do not think of the anxiety 
with which children look for information of tliat 
kind, and of the benefit they may derive from it 
Such information, Vx^hen given by tlie parents, will 
be received with confidence and respect. Some 
young persons will possess reflection enough to at- 
tend to their bodily health, from the consideration 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 53 

that their coristitntion will be commiv/acated tc 
their offspring. I know positively, that such a 
proceeding has been more effectual and beneficitd 
than endeavoring to prevent children from acquir- 
ing any knowledge of that kind, or to conceal the 
effects of the disorderly satisfaction of physical 
love. This propensity deserves the same attention 
which we pay to hunger and. thirst. Both are ac 
tive without our will ; and their activity must be 
directed. Why should we not have recourse to 
the understanding as far as possible, to regulate 
the actions, and employ natural means of correc- 
tion against natural faults ? How can we expect 
that children should suppress a strong internal 
feeling, without being acquainted with the bad 
consequences of its abuses, and with its destina- 
tion ? It seems therefore advisable to show the 
dreadful effects of Onanism to those who are in- 
clined to this aberration ; at first with respect tc 
their own health, and afterwards in relation to 
iheir offspring. 

It has been my object in this Chapter to bring 
under consideration a most important point, which 
must precede, and which will influence whatever 
remains to be done in education. Yet I do not 
deny the efficacy of various other conditions whic' 
T -^hall examine in the following pages. 



54 . EDUCATION OF M* 



CHAPTER II. 

ON THE LAWS OF THE VEGETATIV/. FUNCTIC^NS. 

It is reasonable, when we desire the improve- 
ment of any living being, to emploj^ all the means 
which may contribute towards its perfection. We 
have seen in the preceding Chapter, that man is 
born sickly or healthy, deformed or well shaped, 
an idiot or a genius, — in short, that the human be- 
ing enters life with the greatest modifications of 
bodily and mental endowments. The innate con- 
stitution, then, which depends on both parents, 
and the state of the mother during pregnancy, is 
the basis of all future development. 

Being placed in the world, man is subjected in 
every respect to the laws of organization. Organ- 
ization is influenced by light, air, climate, nour- 
ishment, bodily exercise, rest, sleep, cleanliness, 
and excretions. The body of man, like other or- 
fj-anized beings, undergoes various changes : it be- 
gins, increases. Arrives at its full growth, decreases, 
and dies. There is a certain regularity in the suc- 
cession of these natural changes ; and accordingly, 
(he duration of life is divided into different pe- 
riods, commonlv called ages. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 55 

These changes cannot be entirely prevented, but 
ihey may be accelerated or retarded by external 
influences. The regulation of all the conditions 
which contribute to the development of the body 
and of its parts, and to the duration of Ufe, consti- 
tutes what is termed Physical Education. 

I shall not endeavor to explain Life. I am sat- 
isfied to say, that it embraces all the vital functions 
from conception to death. It certainly depends 
on various conditions, several of which are not 
yet sufficiently understood. The chemical ex- 
planation is not more satisfactory than that founded 
on mere mechanical laws. Life is more than the ef- 
fect of a machine, more than a chrystalization. The 
life of man is also more than the organization of a 
plant, and even more than that of an animal. 
Some fluids belong to its necessary conditions, such 
as caloric and the electric fluid ; but it remains 
undecided how far some ancient and modern 
physiologists are right or wrong in speaking of a 
peculiar Vital Principle, which in ancient times 
often was called the Soul of the World; and which 
sometimes has been confounded with the immortal 
soul of man. 

The modern physiologists consider rather the 
functions of man than the principles of which he 
is composed. They place together the functions 
without consciousness, and call them Automatic 
Life ; while the tYmctions with consciousness are 
known under the name of Animal or Phrenic Life. 



56 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

It is not yet generally admitted, that the phrer.ie, 
like the automatic functions, depend on the or- 
ganization. Physical education, however, evi- 
dently rises in importance, if the manifestations oi 
the mind are modified in energy and quality by 
the influence of the body. 

In this respect various opinions have prevailed, 
and still prevail. There is an ancient belief in 
oriental countries, that the body prevents the soul 
from communicating with superior beings, and 
from exercising freely its powers. Pythagoras, 
Plato, and almost all metaphysicians, fancied, that 
in this life thoughts might be manifested without 
the medium of organization. The body was con- 
sidered as a prison of the soul. Hence the great 
tendency to deliver the immortal soul from the 
mortal body ; hence the spontaneous vexations 
and torments of the body ; and hence many non- 
sensical ideas of castigation. 

This opinion, however ancient it may be, is yet 
erroneous. Experience, which must constantly 
guiue our reasoning, proves the dependence of the 
mental operations on the body during this life. 
Phrenology teaches the particulars of this doc- 
trine. 

The duration of life is commonly divided into 
Infancy, Adolescence, Adult, and Old Age. With 
respect to physical education, the time from birth 
to that of fell growth, is the most important. It 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 57 

is preparatory for the rest of our days, and has 
also a great influence on our offspring. It may be 
subdivided into several periods, the first of wliich 
is that from birth to two years, or to that of the 
first dentition,— I call it Infancy : The second from 
two to seven years, or to the second dentition, viz. 
Childhood : The third from seven years to pu- 
berty, viz. Adolescence : The fourth from pu- 
berty to full growth, or to the period of Mar- 
riage. Before I enter into details on these periods, 
I shall notice some general considerations, and be- 
gin with Longevity. 

It is not probable that the life of man has dimin- 
ished with the duration of the world ; it is more 
reasonable to suppose, that the years mentioned 
in the Old Testament were shorter than ours. It 
is a common observation, that the same term has 
quite different meanings among different nations, 
aiid even in the same nation at different periods 
of its history. The English and Germans, for in- 
stance, measure the distances of localities by miles ; 
but it is known that about six English miles make 
only one mile in Germany. In the same way, it 
may be that the expression year^ did not always 
denote the same lapse of time. It is also possible 
that the duration of a family, that is, of all male 
descendants, was considered as the continuation of 
the same life, as it is still a common saying, that 
parents continue to live in their children. Men, 
ike quadrupeds, commonly live in the state of 



58 EDUCATION 0? MAN. 

nature five or six times longer than they grow ; 
and many individuals of the human race arrive 
still at an age corresponding to these proportions. 
But there is no reason to suppose that the Jews 
made an exception from the physical 1-av^s in gen- 
eral, whilst on the other hand, it is more probable 
that life, generally speaking, is shortened by arti- 
ficial means, rather than by the lapse of time since 
the creation. 

Among the causes which contribute to longevity, 
the most important is the innate bodily constitu- 
tion. In this respect, savages have an advantage 
over civilized nations. The health of the former 
is more durable, and they do not experience a 
number of bodily and mental disorders with 
w^hich the latter are molested. 

A moderate temperature is more conducive to 
old age than great heat. The latter accelerates 
the natural changes of organized beings, and brings 
them sooner to death. Pure, dry, and cold air, 
moderate exercise of all the bodily and mental 
faculties, a good physical education in general, 
and quietude of the mind, are all very favorable 
to longevity. 

On the contrary, hereditary dispositions to dis- 
eases, a weakly constitution, great and sudden 
changesof temperature, intemperance, want of bod- 
ily exercise, noxious occupations, too great applica- 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 59 

tion of the mental powers, misery, unwholesome 
food, a want of sufficient rest, every kind of de- 
bilitating influences, disag-reeable affections of the 
mind, such as jealousy, envy, fear, grief, &c., are 
hurtful to health. 

The influence of nature in preserving* the spe- 
cies, and also the individuals, is great, and has 
been spoken of at all times, under the name of vis 
plastica or vis medicatrix naturcB. It is visible in 
the healthy and diseased state. Yet, however 
effectual nature, and however favorable all cir- 
cumstances may be, the succession of the different 
ages cannot be prevented, and death is at last un- 
avoidable. Physical education can produce only 
modifications, but can never annihilate the immu- 
table laws of the Creator. 

The modifications produced in the body by ex- 
ternal circumstances, deserve a special attention. 
Plants and animals which can live in various cli- 
mates, are extremely modified by the influence oi 
outward conditions. Fruit-trees which have been 
transplanted from the south to the north, bring 
forth the same kind of fruit, but of modified quali 
,ies. The grapes of France excel those of Eng 
land. 

Leibnitz has already remarked, that plants and 
animals show the same type of configuration, are 
long and slender, or short and stout, in different 



60 EDUCATION OF MAW. 

countries. We may add, that it is the sane with 
man. In Angora, the beard of the men is modi- 
fied like tlie hair of animals. In countries where 
the grass of the meadows is long, the cattle are 
tall, and animals in general have long extremities. 
Mankind shgws a similar make. 

The influence of physical education may be ex- 
amined with respect to the body as a whole, or to 
the individual systems, such as the muscles, blood- 
vessles, bones, nerves, digestive organs, &c. It is 
certain and generally known, that climate and the 
manner of living modify the whole organization 
of man. Cliuiate, in its general acceptation, de- 
signates not only temperature, but all external 
influences, particularly air, light, dryness and 
moisture, and food. A particular effect produced 
by a high temperature on living beings is, that 
they undergo their natural changes with greater 
celerity than in colder regions. Annual plants of 
the south, the aloes, for instance, when carried 
into northern countries, last many years. 

It is quite superfluous to insist on the modifica- 
tions produced in organized beings, by food, and 
other external circumstances. Who does not 
kn/^w that the constituent parts of milk, such as 
butter, cheese, and whey, of the same cow, vary 
according to the food with which she is nourish- 
ed ; that the flesh of roes, hares, rabbits, fowls, 
&c., though each sort preserves its specific taste, is 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 61 

greatly niodif.ed b}" the food on which the animal 
lives ? 

This principle, however, is not sufficiently at- 
tended to in the physical education of children ; 
they are commonly treated according to a general 
plan, while external circumstances ought to be 
regulated according to the individual tempera- 
ment. 

In this respect, a very important question may 
be examined, viz. How far may external circum- 
stances contribute to the development of indivi- 
dual parts of the body ? It is known that differ- 
ent systems of the body, such as the muscles, the 
nerves, the digestive organs, &c. do not possess 
precisely equal activity in the same individual. 
It would be extremely interesting to ascertain, 
that such or such a climate, such or such food, &c. 
^s more or less favorable to the improvement of 
particular systems of the body. 

The same degree of excitement, whether of 
temperature or of food, may stimulate one sys- 
tem, and weaken another. Great heat accele-* 
rates the circulation of the blood, and debilitates 
the digestive organs. As the manifestations of the 
mind depend on organization, it is conceivable 
why even talents and moral feelings depend on the 
influence of climate and nourishment. All obser- 
vations of this kind have been made merely with 
1 



62 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

respect to health and the intellect in general 
But as medical men admit that some drugs act 
more on the nerves, others on the blood-vessels, 
others en ihe skin, others on the abdominal -oi 
urinary secretions, why should aliments, and 
other external influences, not be mor'i or less 
favorable to individual parts of the body ? In 
this way, nutrition, and the regulation of exter- 
nal circumstances, will increase in importance as 
they are discovered to contribute, not only to the 
development and organic constitution of the body 
in general, but also to the improvement of single 
parts. 

In this respect, our knowledge is by no means 
satisfactory ; yet every one will feel the import- 
ance of these considerations, and wish for posi- 
tive observations. This interesting subject, in- 
deed, deserves the attention, not only of medical 
men, but of all those who have the charge of edu- 
cation. 

I shall now add some ideas concerning the reg- 
ulation of the vegetative functions, during the dif- 
ferent periods from birth to the full growth > or to 
the time of marriage. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS 63 



FROM BIRTH TO THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, OR INFANCY. 

In this age, the mortality of children is the 
greatest ; and hence the care bestowed on their 
treatment must be proportionate to the dangers to 
which they are exposed. Let us then see what is 
to be done, with a view to regulating external in- 
fluences upon them ; admitting however as I have 
already stated, that the most important requisite 
to health and prosperity is a good innate constitu- 
tion. Among the external circumstances after 
birth, the most essential are Temperature and 
Food ; then follow air, light, cleanliness, sleep, 
rest and bodily exercise. 



Temperature. 

It is known that without a sufficient degree of 
caloric, no act of vegetation or animalization can 
take place ; and that before birth, the child is 
constantly exposed to the temperature of a luke- 
warhi bath ; was it then reasonable to think, that 
immediately after birth a low temperature should 
be most suited to its health ? In new-born chil 



64 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

drcn it frequently happens, that circulation in 
the external vessels of the skin is impeded by the 
influence of cold air, and that from this circum- 
stance a kind of jaundice arises. In more ad- 
vanced years, great changes of temperature are 
hurtful to health. In hot climates, tetanus is 
often the result of sudden refrigeration. We also 
see the natural instinct of birds leads them to cov- 
er their young with their wings. How, then, was 
it possible to fancy with J. J. Rousseau, that new- 
born babes may receive benefit when exposed to 
cold, or when bathed in ice-cold water, or in 
snow ^ Such a treatment, it is true, has been de- 
fended by an appeal to the example of northern 
nations. But it has been overlooked, that in those 
cold countries the whole animal economy of the 
parents is different, and that the children parti- 
cipate in their bodily constitutions. The mo- 
thers in northern regions digest things which the 
delicate women of the south could not take with- 
out injury. It would, however, be as reasonable 
to feed a southern mother on fish oil, as to bathe 
her tender offspring in ice-cold water. The bad 
effect of cold-bathing upon new-born children is 
now ascertained, and this nonsense has been given 
up. It is not, however, my opinion that young 
children ought to be brought up as in a hot-house. 
I grant that they are often kept too warm and too 
much wrapped up. Man being obliged to bear 
various temperatures, children- should be accus- 
tomed to them by degrees. But the weaker and 



V.AWS OF TiiF. vegetative: functions. 65 

t."ie more delicate children are, the more care is 
requisite. In general, however, cold is better 
borne by young than by adult persons. 



Food, 

It is scarcely imaginable how the simple pro 
ceedings of Nature should be neglected, and fan- 
tastical dreams substituted in their place ; how 
any one, for instanoe, could doubt, whether, dur- 
ing the first days, the milk of the mother were 
wholesome to the suckling, whilst calves, puppies, 
and the young of all quadrupeds, suck immediate- 
ly after birth. Why will man alone disdain the 
laws of Nature, who takes so much care for the 
[)reservation of the species } How was it possible 
to think, that honey, syrup of rhubarb, or even 
wine was more wholesome to young babes than 
their mother^s milk, which at the beginning is 
thin, watery, and fit to evacuate the meconium 
collected in the child's intestines, and which, after 
a {e\v days, becomes thicker and more nutritious ? 
Nothing but ignorance would endeavor to gov 
ern N^^- re. Thus, the mother, after having taken 
rest from her labors, and some restoring nourish- 
ment, should, as soon as she has got milk, give 
s'.ick to her child. In cases only where she ha& 
got no milk, light artificial nourishment ought to 
^ e given, till Nature supplies a better food. 

7* 



66 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Much has been said upon the questi )n, whether 
the child is better nourished by its mother's milk 
or by that of another nurse, or by heterog-eneous 
substances. I think nature must decide. Expe- 
rience shows, that, cceteris paribus^ a plant succeeds 
better if it be noi transplanted from one spot to 
another : and, that young trees transplanted from 
a fertile soil into a barren one, languish or perish ; 
while, (in the other hand, if left as they were, they 
grow luxuriantly. Young birds may be nourished 
with eggs, viz. with substances on which they 
lived in the embryo state. Young mammalia also 
may be well fed upon milk and eggs ; and why 
should it not be the same with young children ? 

If the mother be healthy, and her milk nourish- 
ing, it will agree the best with the digestive pow- 
ers of the child ; and by giving suck, the mother 
will be freed from various complaints, noticed 
by many medical writers as the result of neglect- 
ing the first duty of a mother. In many cases, 
however, it will be better for the mother, for the 
child, or for both, to feed the child on the milk of 
a nurse ; or, if this be impossible, by other ali- 
mentary substances. Many mothers of a delicate 
constitution are weakened and fall into consump- 
tion in consequence of giving suck. Many chil- 
dren also perish in such cases from want of suffi- 
cient nourishment. A mother is certainly blame- 
able, if, from a love of dissipation and perpetual 
amusement, she persuades herself that she is sent 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. Gl 

into the world merely to pass through it in the 
most easy manner. But in the above-mentioned 
examples, it is most advisable to have recourse to 
the milk of a healthy nurse, who, as far as possi- 
ble, should resemble the mother in age, tempera- 
ment, and in the period of her delivery. If new- 
born children are given to nurses who have been 
delivered some time before, artificial means, such 
as syrup of rhubarb, or chiccory, generally be- 
come necessary, to evacuate the meconium ; or 
we may act on the babe by the medium of the 
nurse, in giving her alimentary substances that 
make her milk thin and clear, or even that are 
slightly purgative. 

The milk of a wet-nurse varies accordinsr to her 
age, her bodily constitution, to the food she takes, 
and according to her manner of living in general. 
She must avoid every thing which disturbs di- 
gestion, particularly strong spices, spirituous li- 
quors, and disagreeable affections of the mind. 
The suckling participates in her bodily disorders. 
It is liable through her to vomiting, to hiccough, 
to pain of the belly, diarrhcea, uneasiness, to con- 
vulsive motions, and various other complaints. 

Bad digestion, and all symptoms which result 

•om it, are frequently caused by feeding the in- 

\nt immediately after birth with artificial ali- 

tients, such as panada, pap, &c. It will be found 

that new-born children succeed best, if they live 



68 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

for .he first three months only on the milk of the 
mother, or of a sound nurse. By degrees, they 
may be accustomed to some other food, according 
to their temperament and digestive powers, begin- 
ning with liquids, such as milk and sugar, broth, 
boiled biscuit, rice-cream, &c. and so go on to 
solids. The younger the child is, the less nour- 
ishment should be given at once, and the oftener 
repeated : older children may take more food, and 
at greater intervals. 

The nurse's milk certainly has great influence 
on the development of the suckling. Those, 
however, who think that it imbibes the moral 
character of its nurse with her milk, are mistaken. 
If it were true, that a child brought up upon goat's 
milk was fond of jumping, that another fed with 
swine's milk was dirty, it would follow that adult, 
people ought also to adopt the character of the 
animals on whose flesh they live. Men and 
women who live in the same manner, would be 
endowed with the same aflfective and intellectual 
faculties. Nor could it happen, that different 
children, nourished by the same mother, should 
show quite different characters, even before they 
had taken any heterogeneous food. Thus, the 
nurse's milk will contribute to the no\irishment 
and development of the instruments of the mind , 
but it will not give rise -to determinate qualities. 
Her moral character may change her milk with 
respect to its health v condition, but i» cannot 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 69 

produce talents or feelings. Finally, the mental 
powers of children, though innate, are more or less 
exercised and directed by the nurse's temper and 
in en tell capacity, and the nurse is the first moral 
;i!id intellectual instructor. 



Air. 



Atmospheric air is another indispensable con- 
dition of human life, and its physical properties 
and constituent parts, have an influence on all the 
vital functions. Its transparency is necessary tc 
vision, or to the passage of light ; its fluidity 
permits the free motion of the body in it. In vir- 
liie of this quality it admits also of being changed 
or renewed. Its elasticity in propagating its vi- 
brations assists the sense of hearing. Its weight 
compresses the fluid and solid parts of our or. 
ganizntion. Moreover, as the temperature of the 
atmosphere is commonly below that of our body, 
the air receives the superfluity of caloric. Gen- 
erally, however, we are obliged to guard against 
the disagreeable sensations of cold caused by the 
too great privation of caloric. 

The constituent parts of the atmovsphere are ex- 
tremely important to the body. Its oxygen and 
caloric are essential to the sustenance of lite. Its 
azote, hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, water, e ec- 
tric fluid, and the various exhalations of plants 



70 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

aiul animals, have a great influence on the func- 
tions of organized bodies. Certain conditions of 
tiie atmosphere cause plants of different kinds to 
perish. Some winds and conditions of weather 
produce epidemic diseases among animals and 
mankind. In some persons, the digestive powers 
are disturbed at the approach of a storm. Per- 
sons whose limbs have been injured by wounds, 
can foretell the changes of the weather by the 
pains they feel. Nervous and delicate constitu- 
tions perceive the slightest difference in the state 
of the atmosphere. Many of them know by their 
bodily sensations whether the wind blows from 
the north, east, or west. 

New-born children, according to their innate 
temperaments, are more or less benefitted or dis- 
turbed by the condition of the atmosphere. Some 
constitutions require a dry and others a moist air. 
It is, however, a general rule, that it should be 
pure, and not impregnated with noxious exhala- 
tions. 



Light. 

The influence of light is also necessary to the 
development and health of organized bodies in 
general. It changes the color of plants and ani- 
mals, and the complexion of man. Plants kept 
in darkness grow pale and vellow. Worms and 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 71 

nsects confined to dark places remain white. 
Those who spend their lives in their closets, have 
a pale and yellowish complexion. The whole 
organization, being deprived of light, grows weak 
and lat. It is affected with scurvy or putrid com- 
plaints, and the liver enlarges. Hence dark habi- 
tations, narrow streets, high houses, little win- 
dows, and whatever shuts out light from dwelling- 
places, is unwholesome. 

Light awakes us from sleep ; it excites all 
functions of the body, particularly those of the 
skin. Its sudden impression excites sternutation. 
Too much light produces headach, inflammation 
of the eyes, of the skin, of the throat, and of the 
brain ; hence, its regulation is of great import 
ance. • 

The eyes of new-born children should not be 
exposed to a strong light at once, and when they 
begin to see, they ought to be placed so that the 
light is before them, since they always direct 
their eyes towards it, and may acquire an irregu- 
lar look, the eyeballs being turned too much up- 
wards or sidewards. 



Cleanliness. 

The skin having a great influence on the pre- 
Bervation of health, by its absorption and excre- 



72 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

tion, its pores mast be kept open by washing the 
body, and by changing the swaddling-clothes 
and linen whenever they are unclean. According 
to the condition of the skin, it may be washed 
with likewarm water only, or with water and 
wine, to strengthen it, or rubbed over with some 
oily substance if it be dry and rough. 

Some parts, such as the folds of the neck, be- 
hind the ears, the interior of the legs, &c. which 
are liable to he inflamed, deserve particular atten- 
tion. They may be washed with a solution of 
alum, or powdered with pulvis lycopodii^ or be- 
smeared with cacao-butter, oil, or any other pure 
o^reasy substance. I have already mentioned, that 
children should be accustomed by degrees to a 
lower temperature : hence the water or the bath 
employed as the means of cleanliness, must grad- 
ually be used colder and colder. The body, like 
the face, might be exposed by degrees to the at- 
mosphere. 



Sleep, Watchingj Rest, and Bodily Exercise. 

Before birth, children seem to sleep almost con- 
tinually. After birth, the younger the infant, the 
more sleep it requires. Young ch.idren then 
should never be awakened, and be allowed to 
sleep as long as they please. Jt is^ however 
wrong to employ soporiferous means to produce 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 73 

sleep. On the otfier hand, they may b€ soon 
accustomed to awake and to fall asleep at a cer- 
tain hour, and this habit is useful in vari(,us re- 
spects. 

The free exercise of their limbs is very advan- 
tageous to them. No part oi" the body ought to 
be pressed. It was an absurd custom to tie the 
tender creatures, and to impede all their motions. 
It is particularly necessary to attend to the head, 
and not to let it fall backward, since the nerves of 
the spinal cord may suffer from pressure, on ac- 
count of the cartilaginous state of the vertebral 
processes. 

We ought not to be uneasy when children cry 
a little. By crying, the lungs are distended and 
strenerthened, the eves and nostrils are cleaned, 
and the circulation of the blood is promoted. It 
is imprudent to lift up children by one part only, 
such as by one hand or one arm, luxations being 
easily the result of this practice. It is also wrong 
to place delicate and fat children too early on 
their legs, since curvations of the spine and hip 
bones may be thereby produced. Moreover, the 
thorax and shoulders are often injured by leading- 
strings, which, in consequence, ought to be abol- 
ished. It is true, that many children are strong 
enough to resist, but delicate ones nuist frequently 
suffer by them. Too violent shaking may injure 
the stomach and brain, and produce vomiting, 
8 



74 EPUCATION OF MAN. 

principally at the moment when the stomach is 
full. Bodily exercise is of great influence, but it 
is to be directed with caution. 



PERIOD II. 



FROM THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, TO THAT OF SEVEN, OR 

CHILDHOOD. 

Before I consider the particularities of this pe- 
riod, it will be interesting to advert to a few cir- 
cumstances with respect to dentition. At first, the 
natural food of children is liquid ; but about the 
seventh month, instruments which are fit to assist 
the digestion of solid aliments, viz. the teeth, ap- 
[)ear. The development of these organs is often 
the cause of various complaints. The saliva is 
generally secreted copiously, frequent sneezing oo 
curs, the gums grow red and hot, sometimes they 
are swollen, one or both cheeks are red ; the child 
carries his hands, and every thing he holds, into 
his mouth, and presses the gums against it. At 
the end, white spots are seen where the teeth ap- 
pear. Commonly the two middle incisors of tlie 
lower jaw first cut through the substance of the 
gums. A little while after, the corresponding in- 
cisory teeth of the upper jaw show themselves, 
then the ateral incisors, the eye-teeth, and the 



LAWS CF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS 75 

.ateral grinders. When the small molar teeth 
have come through at the age of about two years^ 
the first dentition is complete, and the life of the 
child, which before was precarious, is then more 
secure; for it is ascertained that a third part ol 
cliiidren dies before the age of twenty-four months. 

The growth of teeth, though a natural operation, 
causes various disorders in the vital functions of 
children. Diarrhoeas and convulsions are the 
must fatal accidents attending difficult dentition. 
The state of the jaws alone, or, by sympathy of 
several other parts, sometimes of the whole body, 
is inflanmiatory. Hence the treatment of such 
children must be conformable. As their constitu- 
tions, however, are extremely modified, a physi- 
cian ought to be intrusted with the particular care 
of them. The general rule is, that every kind of 
stimulus ought to be avoided. Tepid bathing is 
an excellent antiphlogistic. 

It ma\^ be observed in general, that in infancy 
the vital motions tend particularly toward the head, 
and that, therefore, this part is the principal seat. 
of the afflictions peculiar to this age. 

In order to favor the cutting through of the 
teeth, the gums may be rubbed with sugar or bits 
of althea-root, moistened with honey cr syrup; 
and kept between the jaw^s. The nurse may also 
introduce her little finger, moistened with honey, 



76 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

between the gams of the chid, to soften them, 
and to relieve the pains of the young* creati\re. 
Sometimes little incisions are made into the gums 
with evident advantage. The excretions of the 
skin and bowels must be kept free. 

To the twenty teeth of the first dentition two 
new grhiders in each jaw are added at about the 
end of the fourth year. They differ from those 
that preceded them in this, that they are destined 
to remain throughout life, whilst the primitive or 
milk-teeth are lost at seven years of age, in the 
same order in which they appeared, and are re- 
placed by new teeth, better formed, and provided 
with longer and more perfect roots. Towards 
the ninth year two new large grinders come fortVi 
bevond the others. There are then twentv- 
eight teeth. Between eighteen and thirty, or 
sometimes still later, the denies sapientice^ two in 
each jaw, complete the second dentition. 

Dentition, like all other acts of the living econ- 
)my, is subject to endless variations. There are 
instances of children that have come into the world 
with one or two incisors, and there are often su- 
pernumerary teeth. It is difficult to say why the 
[>rimitive teeth are detached and replaced by others, 
which have remained so long buried within the 
alveolar processes. Teeth of a third set have been 
Liown to be cut in very old people. 



1 AWS OP THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 77 

Generally speaking", teeth are not taken all the 
cire of which their importance demands. They 
oii<iht at least to be kept clean. Those who neg- 
lect this duty, offend against the first requisition 
of nature ; and if they are punished by tooth-ache, 
(.'hoy receive only their desert. The condition of 
the teeth certainly depends on the whole constitu- 
tion of the body ; and in many cases, the advice of 
a good dentist, who understands not only the 
operative part of his art, but also the animal econ- 
omy, is to be recommended. 

The teeth are in close relation with nourish- 
ment, and this deserves particular attention. The 
necessity of taking nutritive substances is general- 
ly known and indicated by hunger and thirst. 
The nourishment must be modified in quantity 
and quality according to age, to the bodily con- 
stitution, to climate, to season, and to the manner 
of livino-. The influence of different kinds of food 
on the whole constitution is evident, from the 
modified flesh of animals of the same species, fed 
on various aliments. It is useful to vary the food, 
and nature, who has assigned to different animals 
their different ahments, has in this respect allowed 
to man the greatest variety. He is almost omni- 
vorous, and he alone understands the art of cook- 
ery, by which he facilitates digestion. 

In children, the functions of nutrition are quick 
*r ; they die sooner of inanition than adult per 
8* 



78 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

sons ; they require more frequent feeding", and a 
larger quantity of food, as they not only change 
the matter of their body, but increase also. 

As children grow stronger, they will digest sub- 
stances of a heterogeneous and more solid nature, 
in general, the more simple and plain, the better 
are the aliments ; and every food which digests 
is wholesome. It is, however, known, that lym- 
phatic constitutions require nutritive and invig- 
orating substances ; that nervous temperaments 
suffer from stimuli, and stand in need of light and 
simple aliments ; and that weak bowels do not 
bear vegetables, fruit, and paste, these aliments 
giving rise to worms and scrofulous diseases. 
Such intestines then must be strengthened by an- 
imal food, steel-water, some wine and bitters. 

In cold climates animal food is necessary to 
man ; hegrowspaleand languishing on vegetables. 
In hot countries, on the contrary, fruit and vege- 
tables nourish sufficiently, their nature being quite 
different from that of plants in northern regions. 
This is evident, since the spices we take to assist 
digestion, belong to the vegetables which grow in 
southern climates. A cold dry air excites the ap- 
^ petite, while a hot and moist atmosphere weakens 
the digestive organs. 

The alvine and cutaneous excretions are in in- 
timate connection w»<l» utritior^ Noxious par 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 79 

tides, v/hen they remain in the intestines, are 
absorbed and brought into the circulation. The 
abdomen being constipated, the bloodvessels are 
co!npressecl, the circulation is im]>eded, and piles 
are produced. The blood is carried to the brain, 
and causes head-ache. Thus, the excretions must 
bo t:\ken into consideration and regulated. They 
V iry in quantity and quality according to age, 
teinperanient, nutrition, weather and season. Per- 
spiration is more considerable in youth than in 
oUl age, more in hot than in cold weather, more 
in irritable than in inert temperaments. Children 
suffer from being kept too warm. Yet too sudden 
and too great changes of temperature produce in 
them, as well as in adult persons, catarrhal afFec 
tions, couo^hing, inflammation, diarrhoeas, &c. 

The skin ought* to be kept clean, exposed to 
lla-ht and the air, and thus rendered less sensible 
to external impressions. Health is preferable to 
a pale white skin and a sickly constitution. With 
respect to clothing, the general rale is, that no 
part of the body ought to be pressed. Weak or- 
gans may be supported, and the whole body de- 
fetided an-ainst cold, but all the movements of the 
body ou2:ht to be free and easy. It is a false taste 
to hwrt the health, or to injure the vital functions 
of females with a view to increase their beauty. 
A sedentary life is adverse to health in general, 
particularly to that of children. It is the cause ol 
inca.culable mischief. Children require more 
bodily exe^^ise. and mo q sleep than adults 



80 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

During" childhood, as well as in infancy, t\\e 
regulation of the vegetative functions ought to be 
tlie most important point of education. A good 
and healthy organization is the basis of all employ- 
ment and of all enjoyment. Many parents, how- 
ever, are anxious to cultivate the mind at the 
expense of the body. They think they cannot in- 
struct their offspring early enough to read and to 
write, whilst their bodily constitution and health 
are overlooked. Children are shut up, forced to 
sit quiet, and to breathe a confined air. This er- 
ror is the greater, the more delicate the children, 
and the more premature their mental powers are. 
The bodily powers of such children are sooner ex- 
hausted, they suffer from dispepsia, headache, 
and a host of nervous complaints; their brain is 
liable to inflammation and serious effiisions; and a 
premature death is frequently the consequence of 
such a violation of nature. It is indeed to be la- 
mented, that the influence of the physical on the 
moral part of man is not sufficiently understood. 
There are parents who will pay m.asters very 
dearly, in hope of giving excellency to their chil- 
dren, but who will hesitate to spend the tenth 
part to procure them bodily health. Some by an 
absurd infatuation, take their own constitutions as 
a measure of those of their children, and because 
ihey themselves in advanced life can support con- 
finement and intense application with little injury 
to health, they conclude that their- youQg and deli- 
cate children can do the same. Such notions art 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 81 

aliogeihcr erroneous, — bodily deformities, curved 
spines and unfitness for various occupations, and 
Vac fulfilment of future duties, frequently result 
from such misunderstood management of children. 
The advantages of a sound body are incalcnlable 
for the individuals themselves, their friends, and 
their posterity. Body and mind ought to be cul- 
tivated in harmony, and neither of them at the 
expense of the other. Health should be the basis,. 
and instruction the ornament of early education. 
The development of the body will assist the man- 
ifestations of the mind, and a good mental educa- 
tion will contribute to bodily health. The organs 
of the mental operatioLis, when they are too soon 
and too nuich exercised, suffer and become unfit 
for their functions. This explains the reason why 
young geniuses often descend at a later age into the 
class of common men. Indeed, experience shows, 
that among children of almost equal dispositions, 
those who are brought up without particular care, 
and begin to read and to write, when their bodily 
constitution has acq^uired some solidity, soon over- 
take those who are dragged early to their spelling- 
books at the detriment of their bodily frame. No 
sch(7ol education, strictly speaking, ought to be- 
gin before seven years of age. We shall, how- 
ever, see in the following chapter, on the laws of 
exercise, that many ideas and notions may be com- 
municated to children by other means than books, 
or by keeping them quiet on benches. When 
education shall become practical and applicable tc 



82 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the future destination of individuals, cii.ldren will 
be less plagued with nothings, but they will be 
made answerab.e not only for their natural gifts of 
intellect, but also for the just employment of their 
moral powers and the preservation and cultivation 
of their bodily constitution, since vigor in it is in- 
dispensable to enjoyment and usefulness. They 
will be macle acquainted with the natural laws of 
nutrition and all vital functions, and with their in- 
fluence on health. 

The import of the laws of the vegetative func- 
tions is so great, that those who direct mankind, 
ought to be permitted to regulate them in many 
respects. The Mosaic law may serve as a fine 
specimen. All ancient legislators paid great atten- 
tion to these laws, as well as to those of hereditary 
descent. This knowledge will be of greater use 
than to forbid eating meat on certain days. Teach- 
ers ought to know, that nothing is unclean or an 
abomination in itself, but becomes so by being ill 
used. Man must eat anu drink to live, but he 
or.ght to avoid all unwholesome food, and what 
ever disturbs his health. 

The submission of man to the laws of the veg 
etative functions is necessary daring his VN^holc 
life, but particularly from birth to the age of com- 
plete development, since the time of growth is 
preparatory for the rest of life. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 85 

An additional observation concerning" the vege- 
tative functions is, that they, like all others, admit 
of great modifications, nay, even ot idiosyncrasies. 
Some persons on account of their innate vigor and 
>trong constitution succeed under all circumstances 
they resist all noxious influences, they digest what 
ever they eat, whilst others suffer from particular 
aliments, such as mutton, pigeon, veal, cauliflower, 
&c. These latter and all other particularities can 
only be observed, hA can never be explained. In 
regard to them, every one must be his own physi- 
cian. Demosthenes and Haller were kept in a 
state of regular excitement by drinking nothing 
but water. Coffee was the favorite stimulus of 
Voltaire, and tea that of Dr. Johnson. Sir 
Isaac Newton lived upon vegetables when he was 
employed in composing his famous treatise on 
Optics. Hobbes sat in his study, enveloped in 
the smoke of tobacco, &c. In general, however, 
a strict attention to physical education cannot be 
insisted upon too much among civilized nations. 
During the periods of life, from birth to the state 
of full growth, a third kind of laws is 1o be kepi 
in view, and these shall be considered in the fol 
lowing pages. 



• 

84 ^UCATION OF MAN 



CHAPTER III 



ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 

These laws embrace what is called Education 
in a more limited sense, but in this respect many 
errors are caused by the true meaning of the word 
Exercise not being sufficiently understood. I em- 
ploy this expression as synonymous with putting 
into action, and distinguish Exercise from Habit ; 
the latter being the result of the former. 



Habit. 

Habit has two significations : it sometimes indi- 
fio'i-tes the result of diminished activity, and at 
other times a greater facility of acting. A power 
being too active, becomes fatigued, diminishes, 
and is finally exhausted. Moreover, all natural 
powers become accustomed to external impres- 
sions, and the former become the less affected the 
longer the latter are applied. The mimosa sensi- 
tiva, when shaken for a certain time, ceases to fold 
Its leaves. In the same way, each sort of impres- 
sion on the organization loses its effect by frequent 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 85 

fepeiition. Even noxious impressions, when re- 
pented) are less felt than they were at first. In this 
sense Mithri dates accustomed liis stomach and 
!)!)\ve!s to poisonous substances. The attendants 
uiid nurses of patients become in a certain degree 
iiiseiisible to contagious diseases in hospitals. The 
mind its'clf sliows less energy at each repetition ol 
t'ne san.ie tunctions It becomes accustomed even 
lo misfortune and painful situations. Time is a 
gvei^t remedy of many evils. 

Organized beings adapt themselves in a surpris- 
ing degree to external impressions, and a change 
of place and various circumstances is frequently 
less advantageous than might have been expected. 
Prisoners, who have been confined for many years 
to dungeons, or unwholesome habitations, fall sick 
when they obtain their liberty. Many morbid, 
but accustomed affections, such as old sores and 
exudations, &c. are to be removed with the great- 
est precaution, and sometimes to be left untouched. 
Body and mind successively take a turn which can 
be changed solely by degrees. 

All changes which nature produces are succes- 
sive, and art ought to imitate her proceedings. It 
is the same in dietetic rules, and in every manner 
of feeling and thinking. Drunkards cannot leave 
off their bad habits suddenly Vvdthout injuring their 
health. Those who are near starving from inani- 
tion, will Derish if too much nourishment be 
.9 



86 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

given ; and too much light dazzles those wlio 
have lived long in darkness. The had effects of 
great and sudden changes of temperature on iii- 
animate bodies, such as glass, or on plants, an- 
imals, and man, are generally known. Thoye 
who are accustomed to certain mental occupa- 
tions, feel great reluctance to give them up. In 
the same way, great and sudden changes of politi- 
cal, moral, and religious opinions, are not borne 
with indifference. Habit is a second nature, phy 
sically and morally speaking. 

The living generation, if not prepared for it, 
generally rejects every reform. It is only in 
process of time that the adherents to any new doc- 
trine become numerous ; and any doctrine, though 
false, when once admitted, will be replaced by 
another and a better only by degrees. Yet it is 
natural that the more agreeable a doctrine is, tl^.e 
sooner it will gain ground, and that a precept 
which commands resignation will be submitted to, 
i^n proportion to the reward it promises. Chris- 
tianity assigns eternal happiness as the reward for 
temporal conflicts ; and it was adopted by fisher 
men and the poor sooner than by the rich. 

The law of modifying mankind, or of prodric- 
ing changes is seldom understood by reformers. 
They are commonly too hasty ; though, at all 
times, experience has shown the danger and harm 
of such a proceeding When changes are to ha 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 87 

made, let them be gradual ; the greater the alter- 
at'.ons you wish for are, the slower must be your 
method of proceeding; keeping, however, con- 
stantly t'ne aim in view. The precipitancy of 
co.ninon reforn^ers can be excused only by their 
ignorance of hamau nature, and by their errone 
ous opinion, that it is sulHcient to point o'.ii 
errors, and to propose principles, in order to per- 
fect man without considering that he must by de- 
grees be prepared for, and accustomed to them. 

The faciUty of accommodating man to new im- 
pressions greatly depends on age ; it succeeds best 
during the period of growth, whilst in latter years 
we are less susceptible of changes. It is therefore 
not astonishing, that all new doctrines have been 
received and propagated by youth and new gene- 
rations. 

The law of accommodation, however great, 
never annihilates the general laws of life. It is 
even subordinate to them, and cannot prevent the 
successive changes of age. Again, every individ- 
ual being born with a different constitution, and 
with different dispositions, is not equally capable 
of accommodatinsr himself to circumstances, and 
hence each will present some modification, though 
the externa, influences are the same. This is the 
case in the automatic and animal functions. Not- 
withstanding these restrictions, the law of accom- 
modation is incalculably great in the education 
both of in.lividu lis i^nd of nations- 



88 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The second meaning of Habit is an increase'! 
facility of acting in a certain manner. In this ac- 
'jcptation of the word, it is still more interesting 
IS) education than in the former, and deserves a 
detailed elucidation. 



Exercise. 

I have already mentioned that I employ the 
word exercise as synonymous with putting into 
action. Now the first law of this kind is, that ex- 
ercise strengthens powers. This principle is quite 
general throughout nature, and extends even to in- 
animate bodies. Musical instruments being play- 
ed on by masters in the art, improve. The pow- 
er of a magnet to support weight may be increas- 
ed, by gradually appending to it more. Every 
power, both in automatic and animal life, may be 
exercised, and thereby gains in activity. There 
is somethinix analosrous even in tbe diseased state. 
Each organic part, bavingonce been affected by any 
disorder, is liable to relapses ; in tbe same way as, 
according to the first meaning of babit, by repeti- 
tion and continuation many diseases are exhausted. 

The digestive organs may not only be accus- 
tomed to various aliments, but they become also 
more active by being satisfied. In persons who 
spit out the saliva, the glands secrete more abund- 
unlly All musclpB which are exercised increase 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 89 

in strength. Smiths, and those who ise their 
arms, acquire more power than those who sel- 
dom employ them. Bodily exercise in general 
strengthens , and a sedentary life weakens the con- 
stitution. 

The influence of exercise on the functions ot 
the five senses, is generally known and admitted. 
The sense of feeling often acquires a very high 
degree of perfection in persons who are blind 
In the first vol. of Phrenology, speaking of the 
Generalities of the external senses, I have quoted 
many examples which prove, that they become 
more active by practice. 

Ft is the same with the internal faculties mani- 
fested by means of the different parts of the brain. 
Each mental power, if it be sufficiently cultivated, 
grows more energetic, whilst, if neglected, it 
shows less activity. 

In this chapter on the Laws of Exercise, I take 
for granted, that all dispositions are innate and dis- 
covered. I refer for the details of this impor- 
tant proposition to the first vol. of Phrenology. 
Hitherto philosophers have admitted a few general 
powers, and have derived from them all particu- 
lar manifestations. The greater number of them 
consider the intellect as the cause of the feelings. 
Accordingly, they confine education to the Un- 

dcrstandinsr, and do not think of cjltivatins: t' f 
9* 



90 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

Feelings themselves. This, however, is a great 
error, and the first thing to be done is to specify 
the primitive powers of the Mind ; and then, as 
they exist independently of each other, every one 
must be exercised for itself. The legs or arms 
will not be strengthened by reading treatises on 
muscular motion. The digestive organs will not 
act with more energy in those who know all the 
theories which have prevailed on digestion, and 
who are even able to explain the causes of hun- 
ger and thirst. Let such persons have but little 
to eat and to drink, and give to others who have 
never heard of any theory of alimentation, whole- 
some food in abundant quantity, and every intel- 
ligent reader will perceive w^hose appetite and 
digestive functions will be exercised to the best 
advantage. 

Let any one study the principles of optics mere- 
ly in books and in descriptions ; let him learn by 
heart all the theories of colors, but let him never 
see any color, nor feel their harmony. He may, 
like a blind man, recollect all the expressions used 
in painting, but without practical instruction his 
faculty of coloring will not improve. 

Who will pretend to cultivate the musical talent 
only by reading discourses about the principles oi 
melody and harmony ? Is it not necessary for 
tliis purpose to perform tunes, or to hear them 
performed by others, either in singing or in play 
ing on a musical instrument .'' 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 91 

It is the same with all intellectual acuities. 
Each mast be exercised or put into action for it- 
self. Thus, to cultivate the power of Numeration, 
the niiiubers must be shown in real objects. Tc 
e cercise the power of Locality, it is not enoug-li to 
know the names of each town, river, sea, &c. but 
their respective situations must be acquired. 
Souie children easily recollect names and geogra- 
f)hical descriptions by heart, but feel great diffi- 
culty in learning local situations ; while others 
present to themselves, in their own minds, an ex- 
act image of localities, the names of which they 
have forgotten. When children are obliged to 
trace maps, it is not always those who know the 
localities best that have the greatest power of tra- 
cing tb.em on paper. The fundamental faculties 
must be separated in every study. In geography 
for instance, a perfect knowledge requires the ex 
ercise of Individuality, of Form, Size, Locality^ 
and Language. In order to draw maps, Con- 
structiveness is required in addition. The latter 
power will be assisted by Order and Numeration. 

The intellectual faculties of man have improved 
less by education than they might have done, in 
consequence of two reasons, first, of the primitive 
powers of the understanding not being known ; 
and second, of the dilTerence between sensations 
and perceptions on the one hand, and the artificial 
Bigns, either sounds or figures, which express them, 
on the other, not be ng attended to. 



92 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

To i:roceed as if artificial signs couid produce 
sensations and perceptions, while they can only 
call those ideas into recollection which have pre 
existed in the mind, does incalculable h*rm. Th€ 
old system of education however, is conducted in 
this faulty manner. Children learn and repeal 
words without meaning, like parrots. But it 
ought to be admitted as a general principle, in 
communicating every kind of positive knowledge 
of the external world, that, first, sensations and 
perceptions must be excited, and these then de- 
noted by particular signs. In that way only v/e 
shall avoid the great mistake to which we are ac- 
customed from infancy, viz. of pronouncing words 
without knowincf their si^T-nification. 

The vocal or written signs are to be used only 
as means of communication, of recollection and 
tradition ; but they cannot be considered as the 
cause of any idea or sensation. On the other 
hand, each intellectual faculty must be exercised 
by practical application, in the same way as the 
sense of hearing is exercised by hearing, that of 
smelling by smelling, that of sight by seeing. 

With respect to the Feelings, education is still 
more defective. It is commonly believed that it 
is more difficult to cultivate the propensities and 
sentiments than the intellectual powers. It is 
even said that the feelings cannot be taught. This 
oroposition, however, is not clearly stated. The 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 93 

feelinsrs cannot be taught, if by this proposition we 
mean, that they may be given by education ; in 
this sense also understanding cannot be communi- 
cated. Both intellect and feeUnsrs are innate or 
driven by the Creator, but the latter may be exer- 
cised in the same manner as the intellect, not by 
(he action of the faculty ot language, or by learn- 
ing signs, or by exercising the verbal memory, but 
by putting the feelings themselves into action. I 
even think that it is much easier to exercise the 
feelings than the intellectual powers. 

It cannot be too frequently repeated, that the 
Feelings do not result from intellect, any more 
than intellect is the result of the feelings. No one 
is benevolent, just, timid, courageous, haughty, or 
aifectionate, in proportion to his understanding, 
nor has he penetration on account of his feelings. 
Moreover, each affective, as well as each intel- 
lectual faculty, must, and may be exercised for 
itself. Man learns to be courageous, circumspect, 
ambitious, just, or benevolent, as he learns to 
sing, to calculate, to measure, to speak, and to re- 
flect. When often exposed to danger, he learns to 
meet death without fear. By habit he becomes 
indifferent to destruction. The heart, as the Chi- 
nese proverb states, goes farther than anderstand- 
ing. 

Thus, bring men into favorable situations, cal- 
su'ated to call forth their feelings and these will 



94 EDUCATION OF xMAN. 

be strengthened. In order to cultivate benevo- 
lence, one should not frequent only the society of 
rich and opulent persons, and learn by heart de- 
scriptions of charity ; he must experience misery 
himself, and contemplate the painful situations of 
others. There are more poor willing to give 
sharity from their necessity, than rich from their 
superfluity. If all our whims and fancies have 
generally been satisfied, the feelings of conscien- 
tiousness and benevolence tov/ards others are less 
excited, than if our wishes have been contradicted 
and reformed. For the same reason moral feel- 
ings Vv411 not improve by frequenting places of de- 
bauchery. 

The principle in question explains the ancient 
proverb; verba movent, exempla trahunt, and also 
the great influence of bad or good company. So- 
ciety, however, cannot be, as it is often consider- 
ed, the cause of any faculty; it presents only an 
opportunity to the innate powers, to act, or excites 
them to do so. 

The knowledo^e of the means of excitinar the 
powers is very important, but not better under- 
stood than the fundamental powers themselves. 
[t is time to abandon the immense error, that 
words and precepts are suflicient to call internal 
feelings and intellectual faculties into active exer- 
cise Gospel-preaching is infinite, but many of 
.hose who deliver exquisite sermons are too often 



LAWS OF EXERCISE 95 

obliged to add : Do what I say, and not what I 
do. Now, if they themselves show no faith by 
Hieir works, how can they expect others to do 
so ? Let education be practical, and the means of 
excitement adequate to the innate dispositions. 
Bold children will reap advantage from being 
brought up alone, but tiimd ones must be early 
accustomed to the society of strangers. Obstinacy 
will increase by unseasonable vexations, while just 
and quiet resistance or mild treatment may sup- 
press it. The feelings are rather moved by a 
dramatic representation than by a monotonous 
sermon. The sight of a person wounded, or in 
danger, makes a greater impression on the mind, 
tlian reading that thousands have been killed in a 
battle. Natural language, in general, has more 
effect on the feelings than artificial signs. We are, 
for instance, more likely to smile or laugh on look- 
ing at a gay face, than on hearing the word gaiety 
mentioned. 

The efiect of external impressions on internal 
faculties is proportionate to the assistance which 
the external senses give to the internal faculties. 
I refer part'.cularly to what I said of the mediate 
functions of the external senses, in vol. I. of 
Phrenology. In that way, the influence of religious 
ceremonies on common people, is easily explained, 
and ought not to be overlooked. Music, and 
representations of objects and facts in paintings 
and sculpture, may excite various kinds of feel- 



06< EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ings, t\ii inferior as well as the saperior. — It is 
true, that these means may be and have been 
abused ; but I think it wrong on that account to 
reject them altog-ether. Let the impressions on 
tiie senses be adapted to the feelings we wish to 
excite, and these will be exercised. Church 
riiusic certainly should be different from that of 
the ball-room, but music itself ought not, there- 
fore, to be considered as useless in the inspiring 
religious feelings. By means of music, the sol- 
dier may be incited to fight, and the Christian to 
adore his Creator. The great point is, not to 
confound the means with the aim, and not to con- 
sider the first as the second. Religious cere- 
monies are nothing but means to become morally 
good ; and if they do not tend to that purpose, 
they lead us into error. The practice of them 
will not improve the moral conduct any more 
than learning the commandments by heart will do. 
It is also true that the eflfect of music is different 
in different individuals; but it is a great instance 
of ignorant bigotry and intolerance in persons to 
exclaim against its use in religion, because they 
themselves are unfortunately insensible to its 
charms. 

I shall add a few remarks on the artificial signs : 
they are oral, viz. pronounced, or written and 
printed. We commence with learning the oral 
or vocal signs. Their number increases in pro- 
porticn to the activity of the innate faculties oJ 



LAW3 OF EXERCISE. 97 

file body and mind, but children o'.if^ht not to be 
taught to pronounce any word, without learning 
at tne same time to understand it. 

As every family has not tlie means of giving 
sufficient education to their children at home, they 
send them to schools or colleges, to be instructed. 
Public institutions, in consequence, ought to be 
established, with a view to give notions first, and 
signs afterwards, in proportion to the notions ac- 
quired. It is evident, that the objects to be taught 
must vary, according to the situations of the 
scholars, in future life, whether they be destined 
for agriculture, commerce, or any of the learned 
professions. Articles which compose the nrst 
necessaries of life, the most common objects and 
events. Forms, Measures, Weights, Colors, Coins, 
used in the country, the general division of beings 
into minerals, vegetables, and animals, the great 
and common phenomena of nature, <Sic. may be 
taught every where. Those notions which are 
particularly interesting to country people, such as 
the rearing of cattle, or cultivating fruit-trees and 
other plants, &c. may be given where necessary. 
Every kind of information given should be prac- 
tical and useful. Whatever is spoken of, should 
be shown in nature, since it is useless to speak of 
things which children have neither seen, heard, 
felt, tasted, nor smelt. They cannot know any 
more of them than those who are born blind do 

of colors. The feelings also ought to be exercised 
10 



98 KDUfiATION OF MAN. 

as far as they are necessary ; but it is not enough 
to speak of Charity to teach it ; teachers must ex- 
cite that feeling by their own example ; and chil- 
dren must be accustomed to practise that virtue^ 

In the practical way, an immense number of 
useful notions might be given to children in a 
short space of time. Their intellect shows a 
great tendency to acquire positive knowledge, 
while teachers, in direct opposition to nature, 
very absurdly torment them with words witliout 
meaning, or with things they cannot understand. 
Spelling and reading seem the only points which 
teachers mind, hence the great number of 
school-books of that description. Teachers how- 
ever, should be most anxious about children learn- 
ing to think and to understand what they say and 
read, instead of repeating, like parrots, phrases 
and sentences. The school-books ought to be 
composed in reference to ideas to be communica- 
ted to the young mind ; whatever is unintelli- 
ble or cannot he explained, is not only useless but 
accustoms the reader to use signs, without mean- 
ings, and to read without thinking. 

As in teaching languages or vocal signs, it is 
essential to combine notions with v/ords, and to 
shov/ that the latter are merely signs, so, in 
teaching words, the whole grammar of the nu:- 
ther-la "^.guage might be taught. Children will un- 
derstand the meaning of substances, or that each 
i^eing has a rame as well as each substance, each 



LAWS OF EXERCISE 99 

form, dimension, color, &c. They may learn, at 
the same time, the qualities of objects, and words 
whicli express them, or the adjectives. Their at- 
teiitiou may also be directed to the different de- 
o-rees of the adjectives. In proportion as they 
become acquainted with phenomena, or facts, the 
verbs may be explained. The different kinds of 
notions, too, may be pointed out- and children may 
thus become acquainted with the primitive pov/ers 
[)f man, without any peculiar study. 

Those who are advanced in the acquirement of 
notions, and of words or spoken signs, may begin 
to learn written and printed ones. They will 
then compare tiie latter signs with tke former, o. 
with the sounds of which they have already ac- 
quired some knowledge. Among the printed and 
vvritten signs, first, are to be learned those which 
are employed to express constantly the same 
?oiinds ; in the German language, for instance, a, 
;, u, t), <-/, g, /, m, n^ p, 5, w, Sf'-c. ; then the signs 
vi^hich are different, but express the same sounds : 
as, in the German, x and cks ;^f and v ; — i and 
y;— Zand tz: — finally, the signs which designate 
different sounds, such as in the German c, e, /^, ^c. 
When the printed and written signs of single sounds 
are known, then those of compound ones may next 
be ta ight. 

To assist the power of language, the faculties 
of Individuality and Form are usually employed 



100 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

at the same time. The figures of animals are 
marked under the letters of the alphabet ; an Ape, 
for instance is placed under A; a Bat under B; 
a Cat under C, &c. ; yet no animal should be 
named that is not perfectly known to the children 
who \e?>n\ the signs. It would be desirable, how- 
ever, to exhibit the animal itself, where it is not 
familiarly known. 

In this proceeding the fundamental powers ol 
language and configuration are obliged to learn 
each two impressions : two forms and two names, 
for instance, A and Ape, C and Cat, &c. T there- 
fore would advise to teach only the written or 
printed signs, without bringing them in connec- 
(ion with objects ; but I would, at the same time. 
wb.en tl^ey learn the printed signs, exercise their 
fingers in copying the letters of the signs, or what 
is the same thing, in writing them in sand, as is 
the practice in the schools of mutual instruction. 
The advantage of the other method is supported 
on the effect of association. But those who are 
taught in this way, and have the power of confi- 
guration very active, may be impeded in reading, 
because they attach to each letter the object they 
have learnt in its connection ; and in order to read 
fluently, they must unlearn what thej^ were obliged 
to learn at the beginning. 

4 It is clear that the primed and written signs or 

etters in any language, ought to be formed in the 



LAWS OF EX EEC I ST.. 101 

friime manner. If both sorts of signs are different, 
as in the German language, a useless difficulty is 
created. 

The printed and written signs should be taught 
in the same order as the sounds are communicated, 
and a sign should never be taught without indi- 
cating the idea that is expressed by it. We ought 
to begin with learning the single letters ; then to 
go to monosyllables, and by degrees to polysylla- 
bles ; and these should be proncyunced without 
spelling and compared with the printed and writ- 
ten signs. Ale, Ape, Bed, Bank, Cat, Cold, &c. 
— Apple, Bacon, Body, Bitter, &c. —Appetite, Can- 
dle-stick, Candle-holder, &c. 

As we are accustomed from infancy to connect 
sounds with the printed and written characters 
which represent them, we never see the latter 
without repeating at the same tiuie the former. 
Did we never learn sounds, without acquiring at 
the same time a positive knowledge of the things 
they express, we should always think of the re- 
lated notions when we heard or saw the signs, and 
then learning would be much more agreeable, 
easy, and profitable. 

The same proceeding is necessary with respect 
to both the intellectual and aff*ective faculties. A.*- 
we ovicrht to perceive the external objects indi- 
cated, before we learn the signs of them, either 
10* 



h 



102 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

vocal, printed or written, so we ought to expe- 
rience the feeUngs first, before we.learn the words 
by which they are expressed. Hunger and Thirst, 
Warmth, Cold, Anger, Fear, and all other emo- 
tions must be felt before their signs can be fully 
understood. The natural language alone is 
proper to communicate the meaning of expressions 
which denote the affective powers of the mind. 
The natural language deserves the particular atten- 
tion in the cultivation of the affective powers. It 
excites them much more than the artificial signs 
cnn. If a teacher should instruct girls about po- 
lite manners, whilst he himself is awkward and 
sets before them his legs stretched out over a 
chair, the theoretical lessons will be of less influ- 
ence than the example which strikes the eyes. If 
another speak to boys of peaceableness and for- 
bearance with an abrupt and commanding tone of 
voice and with sharp haughty features, he puts 
rather combativeness and self-esteem than benevo- 
lence and reverence into action. It is a rule to 
speak the natural language of any feeling, you 
wish to inspire or to excite, and without doing so, 
the artificial signs are of little consequence. You 
may be silent and dumb, and yet distinctly speali 
to the feelings by natural signs. If education be 
conducted in this way, moral and religious princi- 
ples v/ill produce more effect on mankind than 
they have done hitherto. Then the moral facul- 
ties will be called into action, and our efforts to 
cultivate the mind wil not b« limited to the pow 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 103 

er oi language only, viz. to that taculty which 
learns by heart artificial signs. 

lo-norance of the fundamental powers of the 
mind, and of the means of exercising them, may 
be observed in all the institutions of society, and 
in all branches of mental education. Classes foi 
younger children and whole universities are con- 
ducted according to erroneous suppositions. The 
greater number of teachers agree that the reason 
ing power ought to be exercised in every indi 
didual; but what shall be done to accomplish that 
end ^ Perhaps we see one man of great depth of 
mind who is eminent as a mathematician : the in- 
ference is immediately drawn, that every child 
ought to study mathematics, in order to acquire 
great reflecting powers ; and not even the theo- 
logian is to be excepted, as if mathematical and 
moral reasoning were founded on the same prin- 
ciples 

Another person also endowed with great rea- 
sonmg powers is perhaps a great philologist, and 
particularly an excellent Greek and Latin scholar : 
therefore, every one is compelled to learn Latm 
and Greek, with the view of giving him a power- 
ful mind, as if learning words and phrases v/ere 
the same as acquir'ng sensations and perceptions 
of all kinds, and -easoning on them. Happily 
the time of sophistry is past, and positive" know- 
ledf^e is now esteemed. Experience shows, that 



104 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

philology and mathematics do not improve arts 
and sciences, nor the moral character of man. 

It is replied, that the great mathematician and 
the great linguist, excel by their philosophical 
minds. This is certain ; but they did not become 
good reasoners, one by studying mathematics, and 
the other bv learnins" Latin and Greek. There 
are great philosophers who cannot become great 
mathematicians, nor great linguists. It is true 
that the mind must be drilled and accustomed to 
reflect ; but I deny that this can be done only in 
Latin or Greek, or in the study of mathematics. 
The reflective pov/ers of man are fundamental, 
and may be employed in prosecuting any branch 
of knowledge, in the study of natural history, 
zoology, geology, chemistry, phrenology, &c. ; 
and whoever excels in any line by reasoning, must 
possess them in a higher degree ; but they are by 
no means the exclusive attribute of mathemati- 
cians or philologists. They may be applied to 
any kind of notions and always with most advan- 
tage to the perceptive powers of which are most 
active. Now if an individual have calculation or 
language small, he cannot acquire a great stock of 
notions of that mind, and his reasoning powers 
will rather be impeded by the stud}^ of mathe- 
matics or the classics. It certainly would be as- 
tonishing, if some talented individuals could not 
excel in varioiis kinds of knowledge and-be at the 
same time good classical sc^'olars. The n-r::raV"" 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 105 

of tlie mental powers and their combiDations ought 
ta be better understood, and mental discipline 
which i allow to be necessary, may be arrived at 
by cultivating various kinds of knowledge, and in 
combining them with, reflection. 

Ill the same way, as each faculty exists in itself, 
and may be combined with others, so each may 
be exercised alone or in connection with others. 
We may exercise the faculty of Form, Size, or 
any other, without learning signs to denote our 
ideas; and we may learn signs by heart, without 
understanding their significations ; or Language 
may also be exercised at the same time with other 
faculties. Yet it is useful to put into simultane 
ous, or closely successive action, all the facul 
ties which have a mutual influence on each other. 
In this way they excite each other nratually. 
This rule explains the whole doctrine of Mnemo- 
nics; that is, the activity of one power excites 
that of one or several others. In the next chapter, 
this proposition will be more fully detailed. 
Here, my principal object is to fix the attention of 
teachers upon the great fault of confounding to- 
gether signs and ideas, or of thinking that mere 
words can produce notion.s. 

School education after the monkish and old 
fashioned system, begins with teaching printed 
and written signs, v/ithout explaining their signi- 
fications, and even the instruction we commonlv 



106 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

receive in colleges, is more a communication of 
signs than ideas. Youth are admired and reward 
ed in proportion as they know signs. Hbvv glo- 
rious is it for a boy to know how to communicate, 
the same idea in Greek, Latin, perhaps in Hebrew, 
or in many modern languages ! 

Some speak of the delight they experience from 
reading the classics. This may be with those 
who have great facility of learning languages. 
But it is certain that, generally speaking, the 
study of the dead languages is extremely tedious 
for the greater number of pupils. Lord Byron 
stated it in reference to himself. I am convinced, 
that thereby many children become unwilling to 
learn things to which they would have attended 
with pleasure, had they been taught them in their 
own language in a practical way. Many others 
are drilled by indefatigable pains to become clas- 
sical scholars, and nevertheless fail to distinguish 
themselves. Some good Latin and Greek scholars, 
when they come to practical business, are left be- 
hind by fellow students, who at school were im- 
dervalued. The quantity of Latin words crammed 
into the heads of the students, does not give 
them the primitive power of reflection, nor does 
it serve to cultivate attention to practical life. 
On the contrary, that constrained method of 
studying, renders .heir conceptions slow and hi 
dolent. 



LAWS OP EXERCISE. lO? 

It is alsc said that those who know Latin and 
Greek generally express themselves with more 
clearness than those who do not receive a liherai 
education. It is indeed natural that those who 
cultivate their mental powers, write with more 
clearness than the uncultivated individual. The 
mental cultivation, however, may take place in the 
mother tongue as v/ell as in Latin or Greek. 
Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is 
declared to be superior to that of the modern. I 
allow this to be the case, but I do not find that 
the English style is improved by learning Greek. 
It is known, that literal translations are miserably 
bad, and yet young scholars are taught to trans- 
late, word for word, faithful to their dictionaries. 
Hence those who do not make a peculiar study of 
their own language, will not improve in it by 
learning, in this manner, Greek and Latin. Is it 
not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the 
managers of one of the first institutions of Ireland, 
that it was easier to find ten teachers for Latin and 
Greek, than one for the English language, though 
they proposed double the salary to the latter ? 
Who can assure us hat the Greek orators acquired 
their superiority by their acquaintance with for- 
eign languages ; or is it not obvious, on the other 
hand, that they learned ideas and expressed them 
in their mother tongue ? 

It is farther said, that it is interesting to know 
Latin and Greek, in order to understand the ety 



108 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

moloiTy of moflern languages. This is true, but 
with th.is view, the English ought to study alsc 
the German, Dutch, French an.l Danish, since 
their language is composed of words borrowed 
fr )ni all these nations. 

I am persuaded that the advantage does not re- 
play the trouble of prosecuting such stud^'es, and 
that they occasion an enormous v/aste of time and 
labor. I had rather learn ten ideas in a given 
time, than ten different signs v/hich express 'one 
and the same idea. We should never sacrifice 
positive knowledge and reflection to the acquisi 
tion of a variety of signs. We should begin to 
acquire notions and that language which is the 
most necessary for us to converse in. When I was 
examined, in order to my becoming a licentiate of 
the cohege of physicians of London, i* would 
have been more suitable to have inquired whether 
I spoke the English language sufficiently than 
whether I understood the Latin, the English be- 
ing indispensable to the practice of medicine in ana 
about London, whilst no physician examines his 
patients in Latin, any more than a barrister de- 
fends his clients, or a preacher exhorts his congre- 
gation in that language. 

It is said, that a man who knows Latin, has re 
ceived al.iberal education ; yet it is a lamentable 
thing that we should pretend to judge of a per- 
son's useful attainments by his knowledge of an 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 109 

cieat languages. I wish that the medical profes- 
sion may be cultivated by men of superior talents, 
but I hope that a knowledge of Latin and Greek 
will not continue to be the touchstone of decidiner 
who isj or is not, fit for practising this difficult 
and important art. Few surgeons and physicians, 
who are good classical scholars, will, from that 
circumstance, equal John Hunter in useful know 
ledge, and in improving the healing art ; and yet 
he was not prepared by the study of ancient lan- 
guages for the excellence he attained. He had not 
the advantage of having received a scientific edu- 
cation, and hence his writings want clearness of 
expressions, but he might have acquired the art 
of writino;" in a well conducted Ensrlish hisfh school. 
It may be also remarked with respect to Shaks- 
peare, that he did not become the great poet, he 
was, from being a great classical scholar. 

"VV^ seldom learn co speak Latin and Greek, or 
we soon lose the habit of doing so. Thus, we 
learn these languages in order to understand the 
contents of ancient books. This is well, but then 
we ought, for the same reason, to study all modern 
languages ; at least, to act fully up to this princi 
pie, medical men ought to take that trouble, since, 
beyond doubt, all branches of natural history, 
anatomy, physiology, and pathology, are more 
advanced now than they were at the time of the 
Greeks and Romans ; and, of course, more know- 
ledge is to be obtained on those subjects from pub 
11 



110 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

lications in the modern languages of Europe, than 
in the languages of Greece and Rome. Formerly, 
when scientific books of all nations were publish 
ed in Latin, a knowledge of it was necessary ; bul 
since the works of every nation appear in the 
mother tongue, the same degree of importance 
can no longer be attached to it. Not every one is 
obliged to learn Hebrew though he is exhorted to 
read the Bible, that is in its translation. Further, 
if men of science be contented with extracts and 
translations of modern works, why should it not 
be the same with respect to the ancient ? More- 
over, the greater number of professional men, 
who are much occupied in practical life, have 
scarcely time to read what is written in their own 
language ; their knowledge of Latin and Greek, 
therefore J is quite useless to them and the art. 

Once I heard it stated that the classics contri- 
bute to the refinement of our feelings, but it should 
be singular, if we could not feel without knowing 
Latin and Greek. The erroneousness of such an 
assertion is evident and does not require a more 
detailed refutation. It is also remarked that 
translations are inferior to original words in Latin 
and Greek, in the same way as the French lan- 
guage cannot express Shakspeare's thoughts and 
conceptions. This cannot be said of the Gernian 
.anguage, and I do not say that Latin and Greek 
should not be studied at all. I willingly allow 
that every one who has the natural talent and 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. Ill 

* 

icisiirc, may stndy the ancient languag-es, as Latin. 
Greek, Hebrew, and ancient as well as the modern, 
if so inclined, and grant him his hobby; I only 
irnintain that a knowleds^e of them ousrht not 
to be required as indispensable from every stu- 
dent ; and it seems to me particularly unwise to 
begin our preparatory and college education with 
them, and to lose so much time and labor which 
might be more usefully employed. 

It is replied, that childhood is the most fit pe- 
riod for learning languages, — that children must 
be trained up to the tedious study of ancient 
tongues, because, at a later period, they would not 
submit to the same trouble. This proposition is 
supported by no authority, except that of the pre- 
vailing opinion, that the study of Latin is a neces- 
sary accomplishment ; it falls to the ground as 
soon as we feel its' uselessness. It is undoubtedly 
true, that youth is the fittest period for learning 
languages, but let us learn those first which are 
the most important to our future life. Now, the 
modern languages appear to me to be the most 
useful. Above all stands our mother tongue ; we 
ought, therefore, to begin with it. The parts of 
speech are the same in all languages, and may bo 
learnt in the modern as well as in the ancient. 1 
am quite grieved to see that many young ladies 
aim at such accomplishments, whilst they entirely 
neglect every kind of know.edge ndispensable 
to their future destination as wife and mother. 



112 EDUCAIION OF MAN. 

One should imagine that, in civilizod life the only 
Juty of the lemale sex consists in useless amuse- 
iients and by no means in the fulfilment of im- 
portant functions. I lecve this subject to the con- 
^ideration of all those Vv^ho interfere with education 
md the direction of academic studies. Some 
may think that I h.z,ve entered into too many de- 
tails, but the importance and great influence of 
this matter v;'il] pie^cl my excuse. I am decidec^y 
of opinion Inp.t in this respect Education stands 
In need of r'^form. It is, however, said that a 
mother r:*ay assist her boys in acquiring a classi- 
cal G(t>ioat"*.t>n. Thi's remark again supposes that 
all boys ought to learn Latin and Greek, and th'at 
on account of the first error we must commit a 
second. Yes, a mother ought to attend to the first 
education of her boys and to that of her girls en- 
tirely, but let useful knowledge precede that wliich 
is merely secondary. There may be single indi- 
viduals among girls who have a great disposition 
to learn languages, let them exercise their talents, 
but let them not be a standard for girls in general. 
I am sure that few of them, as well as of boys will 
be greatly delighted with the study of classics. 
On the other hand I doubt that on account, of this 
acquirement, girls become better wives, and bet- 
ter mothers, and that they will, for this reason 
gain the affection of their husbands. Rich and 
independent females certainly should be occupied, 
and if they be married without having children 
Bome may be entertained by the study of Ian 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 113 

guag'es ancient and modern. No sensible man 
will object to this, the question is only what shall 
be the general rule and what the exception. It, 
hovvever, still seems to me, that even such ladie? 
might become more useful to their fellow-crea 
tures and more meritorious by other occupations. 
The exertions of Mrs. Fry have been more bene- 
fical to her fellow-creatures, than the classical 
knowledi^re of her whole sex in the united king 
doms of Great Britain and Ireland. 

In the same way mental arithmetic may be im- 
portant as far as calculation of the useful is con- 
cerned. It may be acceptable to those who found 
morality on so frail a basis as utility and expe- 
diency. But I do not see that it contributes to 
diminish selfishness, or to strengthen the noblei 
sentiments any more than Latin and Greek in 
crease the love of truth and the feeling of consci- 
entiousness. Let it then occupy only the time ne- 
cessary to its practical usefulness. I might alsc? 
wish to be apprised what useful knowledge young 
ladies acquire from reading at school works on 
mental philosophy. Probably the same which little 
children in infant-schools, obtain from reading 
and learning by heart texts of the Bible concern 
ing miracles and doctrinal points which divide 
the different sects of Christians. Can metaphysi- 
cians themselves make any practical application ol 
their doctrines ?— What an age of useful know- 

ledtre ; what an age of wisdom is ours ' 
° 11* 



114 " EDUCATION OP MAN. 

The second principle of exercise is, that the 
primitive powers are not to be confounded with 
their application ; each power being always the 
came, but its applications and modifications infi- 
nite, according to age and external circumstances. 
Inattention to this difference, produces more bad 
effects than many persons suppose. They com- 
plain, for instance, of the vanity of adult persons, 
while they continue to nourish this feeling in 
every child they meet with. He who knows that 
the Love of Approbation is a fundamental feeling ; 
that it exists in different degrees of strength in dif- 
ferent individuals, and that exercise increases its 
activity, will not excite it too much in infancy, 
for fear that, in later life, it should produce abuses 
He will perceive, that flattery of every kind ex- 
cites this sentiment ; that praising a child for his 
figure, his hair, his voice, his clothes, his manner 
of dancing, &c. will put into action, and increase 
his love of approbation, and prepare for him a 
source of misfortune. A looking glass and curls 
of hair, ear-rings and bracelets as well as titles 
nourish this feeling. Irascible children should 
not be permitted, and still less encouraged, to beat 
their playthings, against which they hurt them- 
selves. As equity was a principal object of the 
Areopagus of Athens, that virtue was considered 
as indispensable in the members in all situations. 
He who killed a bird that looked for shelter in 
his house could not become a member ; and a 
n^ember who played on a word, was degraded. 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 116 

because such a practice might do harm to truth. 
How inferior, nay puerile, is the behaviour of 
some modern legislators ! Those who are faithful 
in little things, says Christ, will be so in great. 
Thus particular vigilance ought at all times to be 
observed not to cultivate to excess the propensi- 
ties and sentiments of children, which may in after 
life render them unhappy or impede their moral 
conduct. On the other hand, they are wrong 
who neglect to cultivate any feeling or the facul- 
ties of the fine arts, because disorders may and 
often do result from them. This also happens 
with acquisitiveness, and with every fundamental 
power, each of which, however-^ is given to a cer- 
tain purpose. In admitting that every one is an- 
swerable for the talents he has received, it is evi- 
dently our duty to cultivate the fine arts, as far 
as they are in harmony with all- other faculties. 
Superstition undoubtedly degrades a reasonable 
being, but the human character is ennobled and 
the charms of society increased by respectfulness. 
There c^an be no doubt that in attending to the dif- 
ference between primitive powers and their ap- 
plication, between their legitimate actions and 
misapplications or disorders, many errors hitherto 
committed in educatian will be avoided. Ladies 
want bodily exercise, but it is a mistake to make 
them march like soldiers. Since no female wi.. 
gain the affection of a gentleman by a soldier-like 
manner of walking. Her movements should be 
graceful and gentle. 



116 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The third principle of exercise, is, that the order 
of instruction ought to follow the order of nature, 
in hringing" the faculties into activity. Children 
acquire notions before they make themselves ac- 
quainted with signs to indicate them. They know 
the objects themselves sooner than their qualities 
and mutual relations ; they know the qualities of 
those objects sooner than the modes of tneir ac- 
tions. Accordingly, their language begins with 
norms, and verbs in the infinitive mood. By de- 
grees, they learn signs to indicate their acquired 
notions of other kinds. Their language, then, 
evidently shows, that their faculties do not appear 
simultaneously. It is, indeed, an important point 
in education to know that the faculties of the 
mind begin to act successively, viz. in proportion 
as the organs on which their manifestation depend 
are developed. Hence, they ought to be exercised 
in the same order ; and the knowledge of the 
periods of development of the respective organs, 
is as necessary as a knowledge of the functions of 
the primitive faculties ; because it is certain that 
no faculty t^n be exercised without the assistance 
of its organ. This principle is general in organic 
and animal life. 

It may be here considered, that education, as 
far as exercise goes, begins earlier in life than is 
commonly believed. The vegetative functions, 
the hours -^f sleep, of appetite, " of the urinary 
and alvine excretions, may be soon regulated 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 11*7 

Chilflreu are easily accustomed not to fall asleep, 
except wheQ carried on the arms or shaken in a 
cradle. They begin to make acquaintance with 
the external world when a few weeks old. It is 
hy de£?rees that they taste and feel, hear and see ; 
that they learn to distinguish their nurse, or those 
v^ho take care of them, from strangers, and the 
existence of external objects. When they become 
attentive to the things around them, we ought to 
show them repeatedly a great number of various 
objects, and exercise as much as possible their ex- 
teriml senses. They are soon tired with the same 
object, but pleased with new impressions, as is the 
case also with the greater number of adult per- 
sons. Thus, it is not a matter of indifference, 
whether a child be carried quietly on the arm, or 
whether its attention be excited towards external 
c'- jects. I consider it as very important in whose 
society young children are kept ; not that I think 
that children absolutely acquire the character and 
talents of those who are around them, but because 
their society will be favorable or unfavorable to 
the exercise of the innate dispositions. 

' The periods when the innate powers appear, 
increase, decrease, or disappear, are of great im- 
portance. Some are active early in life, and con- 
tinue longer than others which appear later 
Now, the powers will be cultivated with the most 
effect at the period of their natural activity. 



118 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

There is some regularity in the appearar.ee and 
disappearance of the faculties, yet there a: e many 
exceptions and modifications, as in all natural 
operations. Nature is immutable only with re- 
spect to the relation of cause and effect ; but she 
modifies the phenomena in infinite varieties. It 
happens usually, that those powers that act strong- 
ly, appear early and last long. The intellectual 
faculties and several feelings, commonly decrease 
in old age. Several persons, however, are par- 
ticularly fortunate in preserving the energy of their 
mind to a great age ; but the greater number of 
old people are deceived, if they take themselves to 
be still what they were when young. 

Among the intellectual faculties, those of indi- 
viduality, form, eventuality, comparison, ^nd lan- 
guage, appear first. Children soon know many 
individual objects and facts, and conceive general 
notions ; they call, for instance, every young being, 
child. Then the faculties of size, coloring, local- 
ity, number, order, time and tune, appear succes- 
sively. Objects and their phenomena ought to be 
fanght first, and afterwards the qualities of objects 
uid their relations. 

Among the feelings or affective faculties, those 
of attachment, cautiousness, love of approbation, 
acquisitiveness, combativeness, secretiveness, de 
giructive ' ess, firmness, benevolence, conscientious 



LAWS OF EXERCISE 119 

ness, and imitation, are very early active. Those 
of reverence and amativeness appear much later. 

Let it not be forgotten, that from the earliest 
age, the feelings, as well as the intellectual facul- 
ties, may be educated, and that young children 
show no less difference in their cnaracters than in 
their talents. They are patient or obstinate, indo- 
l,ent or lively, timid or courageous, attached to, 
or careless about others, &c. Let those powers 
which are naturally too active be quieted, and 
their activity prevented ; while those that do not 
act with energy enough, ought to be excited in a 
practical manner. As imitation is particularly ac- 
tive, good examples and the best impressions of all 
kinds should be given. 

In treating of the vegetative lawsl have stated, 
that very young children ought not to be obliged 
to sit still in an apartment all the day, as is some- 
times the case in common school education. Par- 
ticular places, in healthy situations, might be in- 
stituted, where children could come together to 
play, and at intervals to learn things in nature, 
and their names, objects and their qualities, in- 
stead of sending tliem out only to take a walk, or 
to breathe pure air. Parents might thus have the 
advantage of having their children kept out of 
harm's way, and the young creatures themselves 
would not be compelled to suffer the distresses 
necessarily experienced when restrained from 



120 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

moving' ilieir limbs, nor be tired by unprofitable, 
learning. They would be pleased »vith acquiring' 
the knowledj^e of thing's and of words to express 
them, and at the same time, they mig-ht be accus- 
tomed to order and obedience. They will also 
learn the signs which express the feelings, and 
their relations, in proportion as the feelings are 
excited in themselves. Gymnastic exercises might 
and ouG-ht to be combined with mental instruction. 
The principal object of such schools should be 
bodily strength, order, cleanliness, notions of 
things, and oral signs. 

The schools for young children in Mr. Owen's 
establishment at New Lanark, first exhibited, to a 
certain extent, the practical application of these 
principles in uniting physical and intellectual edu- 
cation. The infant schools since introduced in 
London and in the rest of Great Britain do the 
same ; and no one can observe the happiness and 
intelligence which reign among the children 
there, without wishing this mode of instruction 
generally adopted ; though it may be still im- 
proved and more adapted to the nature of man. 
Unfortunately for the young beings this mode of 
instruction has already degenerated from its first 
plan. Many teachers find it too difficult to adapt 
themselves to the children. From habit, and per- 
haps from commodiousness , they prefer to keep 
them quiet, and to teach them A. B. C. and 
spelling rather than to satisfy the active dispo- 
sitions of the young minds. Whoever takes interest 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 121 

m the improvement of education, should first tliinls 
ot' means of forming teachers. 

The fourth principle of. exercise is, that it musi 
be proportionate to the innate dispositions. Too 
much activity weakens or even exhausts the facul- 
ties, both feeling's and intellect. This explains 
why too early geniuses, often become ordinary 
men when grown up ; why the mental operations, 
when too active, are frequently deranged, and 
why it is necessary to keep up the balance between 
body and mind, and between the individual facul- 
ties. 

The brains of delicate children and premature 
geniuses ought'to be exercised late, and the greater 
their mental activity is, the less it needs to he ex- 
ercised ; and the more care is to be taken of the 
body and the physical education. 

It is also very important to know, that during 
the climacteric years, when the body increases 
most rapidly, the mental powers are weaker. 
Hence, at that period, the body deserves greater 
attention than the mind. The mental facullies 
will resume their activity, v/hen the body has ac- 
quired its solidity. 

Increased or uiminished Qnevgy is dependent 

not only on the periods of growthj but all powers 

are liable to be occasionally more or less fatigued. 
12 



122 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

No power is always equally active, each requifes 
rest. It is, therefore, advisable to exercise one 
power after another, and to allow to children suf- 
ficient sleep. As any faculty, if too much excitca 
is injured, or even exhausted, so is it weakened if 
it remain too long inactive. Teachers may easily 
perceive the disadvantages of too long a cessation 
Irom study in the effects of vacation on their pu- 
pils. These latter always find some difficulty in 
returning to application and order. Intermission 
ia necessary as well as exercise, but neither ought 
to be of too long a duration. They are relative, and 
education "requires to be amended in this respect. 
A long vacation is more favorable to the teachers 
than to the students. The former, it is true, want 
rest, but they might alternate, for the same reason 
as the objects to be taught must be changed from 
time to time. Education should never be tedious, 
nor too long interrupted ; different faculties should 
be put successively into action, which produces a 
kind of relaxation, and sufficient care ought al- 
ways to be taken that the bodily constitution does 
not suffer by pressing too keenly the progress of 
mental instruction. Children, who return for 
months to their family, are rathar spoiled, during 
that time, than improved in order and obedience. 
They are indulged in their caprices, and see con- 
duct practised in direct opposition to what they 
are taught at school to regard as meritorious. 
The frequent and lo.ig interruptions of practising 
the theoretical rules, prevent them from becoming 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 123 

altogether accustomed to them, and they wish for 
nothing more earnestly than that the time of learn 
ing might be over, to be permitted to act in oppo- 
sition to what they have been taught, and to for- 
o'ct the ideas they have had so much difRculty in 
acquiring, 

Tiie fifth principle of exercise is, that its influ- 
ence will not be the same on every individual, on 
iiccount of the innate dispositions. Even different 
children of the same parents, and brought up by 
the same teachers, turn out quite differently. In- 
deed the fact, that the dispositions are innate, can- 
not be insisted on too much. We must say with 
Hume, (Essays on Morality, 3rd edit. p. 93.) that 
the influence of education would be miraculously 
orreat, could it but create one sense, and that this 
miracle is reserved to our Maker; that education 
'nay cherish and improve the plants of natures for- 
mation, but cannot introduce any original plant. 
tiELvr.Tius, who considered man as the result of 
education alone, was obliged to allow that " une 
folic passee rarement eclaire les hommes sur une 
folic presente." Marcus Aurelius calls little 
politicians, and compares with children, those 
who maintain that whole nations might be changed 
mto philosophers. He was satisfied by being able 
to contribute in a slight degree to common welfare, 
nnd to improve a few persons. He denies the 
possibility of establishing Plato's republic. He 
in particular insists on the importance of making 



124 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

any new idea popular. He adds, that withoiic 
this precaution the success is impossible, that al)- 
solute power and lessons remain without effect, 
if the maimers of the people do not change ; that 
ill this case, nations are but slaves, and complaii^ 
of restraint, or are hypocrites, and feign to be per- 
suaded. 

It is more easy to cultivate the lower feelings, 
since they are naturally stronger in mankind ; in 
ihe same manner those who are virtuous by na- 
ture will sooner learn to practice moral principles 
than those in whom the lower propensities pre- 
dominate. Those who have little conscientious- 
ness will with great difficulty learn to be just in a 
b.igher degree, in the same way as those who pos- 
sess any intellectual faculty in a small degree, will 
never excel in it. The greater the disposition, the 
greater the effect of exercise ; yet it is always 
true, that a proper degree of exercise strengthens 
the functions of each power. 

The preceding considerations on exercise aflord 
an opportunity of speaking of the method of mu 
tual instruction. It is inconceivable how its ad 
vantages can be contested. I rather excuse thos? 
who contend for the beneficial effects of ignorance 
and who object, that mutual instruction is a meanr 
of teaching in too short a time, tlian those whc 
acknowledge the benefit of general in-formation, 
and yet hesitate to employ this method. Its supe 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 125 

riority is too evident to be long impeded by its 
novehy. 

It is my decidec^ opinion, that this metlioci 
oiigh . to be used in all branches o** knowled<2:e. 
which may be acquired by the influence of teach 
ers, or which may be taught. Even those who 
are destined to improve arts and sciences will gain 
by it. The reason of this is very simple, and 
founded on the inflaence of exercise ; while at the 
same time this method has the great additional 
recommendation of being the least expensive mode 
of instruction. This advantage is certainly of im- 
portance, but I shall examine only the benefits 
which result from exercise. 

If there be many children or students together, 
the school hours are not sufficient to examine 
every one. Young persons, however, who are not 
examined, are less attentive to their studies than 
those who are ; their faults, not being remarked, 
are not corrected, and only a few are noticed. 
In large classes all that can be expected at present 
is, that the teacher should explain every thing 
distinctly, and repeat it with a {ew scholars. He 
addresses himself commonly to those who learn 
quickly. Should it happen that the master speaks 
to others of less talents, the better heads, knowing 
their lesson, cease to pay attention, or at least are 
soon v/earied of domg so. But were the better 
students oblisred to repeat the lesson with tiio 
12* 



126 EDUCAIION OF MAN. 

others, they would experience that we learn by 
teaching ; they would feel inclined to go over and 
over the same thing with those intrusted to them 
for instruction, while, in the»common way, they 
cease to repeat their lessons when left alone. At 
the same time the students of less capacities wiL 
be more attentive, and, on account of the constant 
repetition, they will remember what was lost at 
the mere explanation of the master. 

Let us examine any branch of education what- 
ever, and we shall find that the advantages of this 
method are always the same. We may take a 
mathematical problem for the sake of example. 
Suppose the rules to have been taught, and that 
they are to be applied. Those scholars who pos- 
sess the mathematical talent in a high degree, will 
^onn finish their problem , and will be obliged to 
wait in irksome idleness till many others, who 
cannot follow so quickly, have done. Ii the for- 
mer, only, are called for by the master to resolve 
the problem, the others hear it, but it is not at- 
tended with the same advantage to them, as if they 
were called to work for themselves. If, on the 
contrary, the scholars, with little mathematical 
genius, be chiefly examined, those who excel in 
that talent will lose their time, and neglect what 
they know, while their attention would be excited 
if they were employed in teaching their condisci- 
pies. Their natural activity may even lead them 
to do miscliief, whils. they are not otherwise oc- 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. i27 

<?ii]:iie(l. It is the same with spelling", writing-, 
draw! I 12:, dancing, learning, history, geography, 
languages, in short, with every branch of know- 
ledge that is taught. 

The practice of the common method can be 
excused only by the supposition, that all pupils 
are endowed with the same degree of abilities. As, 
however, daily experience shows the contrary, it 
ought no longer to be tolerated, if the object be to 
take the greatest possible advantage of the period 
of education. The new method is particularly 
useful in schools where all classes of chi dren are 
collected together in the same room, and where, 
in the common method of teaching, while one 
class is examined the others are doinq- nothinsf. 
Children are in general required to learn by them- 
selves, but few only are capable of this exertion. 
According to tlie new method, all classes go on at 
the same time, and the same subject is repeated 
till every child knows it. 

In colleges, where each class is separated, the 
necessity of the new method is less felt ; yet, the 
above-mentioned reasons induce me to think, that 
it should be. employed in all large classes, where 
the pupils, on account of their different desrrees 
of capacities, naturally form themselves into seve- 
ral subdivisions. 

The superioiity of a new method, ought to de- 
termine the directors of instruction, to make a 



128 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

new classification in colleges, according* to tne 
subjects to be taught. There should be one pro- 
fessor for each branch of knowledge ; one for his- 
tory, one for geography, one for the inolher 
tongue, one for Latin, one for Greek, one for 
poetry, one for mathematics, &c. The pupils 
who study the same branch might be brought to- 
gether, but divided into different classes ; those, 
for instance, who study history might be in the 
same room, but divided into several classes. A 
similar arrangement should prevail among the 
students of Latin, Greek, mathematics, geography, 
&c. The professor of each branch might put all 
his classes into action at the same time, in the 
same manner as is done in the schools for children. 
Monitors might take his place in the inferior 
classes. In this wa}^, the pupils would make 
more progress than they commonly do. It is not 
necessary to state how many professors might be 
instituted, for there might be as many as branches 
are found to be requisite. The principal object 1 
here contend for is, that the better students should 
instruct the inferior ones, when the masters are 
not sufHcient for the purpose. Emulation would 
induce the monitors to employ their leisure mo- 
ments in learning new subjects. Moreover, the 
time which the masters give to explanation is 
short ; that employed by the scholars in learning 
occupies a greater portion. Tiiis portion of time 
will be filled up to more advantag-e by the method 
of mutual instruction, than if every one is left tc 
himself alone ; and those who instruct others will./ 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 129 

in this way, derive even the greatest advantage. 
This method, being new, has met with adversa- 
ries ; but whoever will set an example of using it 
in the higher branches of knowledge, will find its 
superiorty the same as it is already ascertained 
to be in teaching the first elements of education. 
The fundamental principle implied, in the method 
of mutual instruction, is one and. the same for 
whatever is tayght to many pupils at once. At 
colleges, those who are very zealous form private 
classes for repetition among themselves, and others 
who have means, pay repeaters. Every improved 
system of learning admits the advantage of repe- 
tition, and all teachers speak in favor of numerous 
mstructors. This is accomplished by the monito- 
rial system. It is objected that boys do not teach 
soundly. I reply that in that case they are not 
taught, or do not learn soundly. It is applicable 
to monitors v/hat we may say of instructors 
throughout : The most learned is not always the 
best teacher. The head master ought to under- 
stand human nature and to choose the proper 
monitors. Farther, if the monitorial system has 
failed to produce the desired result, we may say, 
'• what is best administered is best," and not at 
once accuse or reject a new doctrine, or system, 
because it is not understood. I have ^een the 
monitorial system applied with astonishing effect. 
I will mention only Wood's Sessional School at 
Edinburgh in Scotland, where the children of the 
lower classes arc instructed, with little expense, in 



130 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

a manner which should do honor to those of 
the first ranks, and it is done by the monitoriai 
system.* 

The principal point of the Hamiltonian system 
too is that of continued exercise. Numerous 
teachers replace the monitors ; and the same les- 
son is constantly repeated. The other great point 
of this system, which teaches tojearn a language 
without the grammatical rules, does not seem to 
me equally applicable to every individual. It will 
however, please the great number, and in gene- 
ral those who attach themselveslittle to principles ; 
whilst those whose reflective powers are large, 
will be desirous of knowing from the beginning 
the rules contained in their language. 

The advantage of repetition then being evident, 
and confii-med by daily observation, it ought to 
be more generally practised than it is done in pub- 
lic institutions. The more the pupils are examin- 
ed, the more they will learn, and the clearer thei» 
notions will be. 

It may oe asked, whether exercising the affec- 
tive and intellectual powers, makes the respective 
organs increase ? Each part of the body, being 
properly exercised, increases and acquires more 



* See review of Wood's account of the iLclinbuigh Sessional School 
va the A.mericaa annals of educatiori, vol. 1. 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 131 

strength. The fact is known to be so, with re- 
spect to the muscles of woodcutters, smiths, run- 
ners, &c. Now, the brain and its parts are sub- 
ject to all the laws of organization ; they are 
nourished like the arms and legs. Cerebral ac- 
tivity, therefore, determines the blood towards the 
head, in the same way as the blood is carried to 
any other part when irritated, and this law of the 
organization may enable us to account for the de- 
velopment of certain parts of the brain of whole 
nations, and to explain national characters, if in- 
dividual powers are cultivated during successive 
generations. I can speak with certainty from re- 
peated observations. The changes of cerebral 
development, when the individual powers are ex- 
ercised, or kept quiet, are astonishing. In the for- 
mer case individual organs increase, and in the lat- 
ter they not only stand still in growth, but some- 
times become absolutely smaller. 

The growth of the organs, however, is not the 
only or even most important advantage to be de- 
rived from proper exercise, for it is certain that 
organic parts, such as the muscles, the senses, the 
brain, &c. do not increase in size in proportion to 
their exercise. The muscles which move the fin- 
gers of a musician, for instance, who plays on a 
l)iano forte, will acquire more facility and agility 
than size by the exercise. If we walk little dur- 
ing winter, and take more bodily exercise in the 
spring, we are easily fatig led at the beginning 



132 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

biU., by degrees, we can make greater excursions 
without suffering by them. Yet the muscles do 
not grow in proportion as walking becomes easy. 
In the same way, the size of the organ of tune, or 
of any other power, will not augment in propor- 
tion to its being exercised, but its fibres will act 
with more facility. 

I finish this chapter by repeating the principal 
points detailed in it: Exercising is the same as 
putting into action ; — each faculty must be exer- 
cised for itself; — the means of exercising the 
powers are of great importance ; — exercise of the 
faculties should take place in proportion as their 
respective organs are developed ; — exercise must 
be proportionate tO' the innate dispositions, t'^n 
little or too much does harm, but applied in a 
proper degree, it makes the organs increase in size, 
modifies their internal constitution, and produces 
greater activity and facility. The effect of the 
same exercise is different, on account of the innate 
dispositions of different individuals. It has been 
hitherto feeble, particularly in reference to the 
moral feelings ; but it will be greater, when the 
innate dispositions of the mind and the laws of ex- 
ercise are understood and attended to. The re- 
quired reform of education must begin with form- 
ing teachers themselves. Their influence being of 
the first rate, they must rank high in Society, and 
their reward ought to be honorable. This might 
oe done by the assistance of the monitorial system, 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 133 

antl without increasing the general expense. There 
is so much zeal for education in the United States, 
particularly in New England, that this condition of 
improvement I hope will occupy the minds of 
American philanthropists. They will consult the 
American annals of education and instruction, and 
learn what has been done in Europe, and in some 
parts of the United States, and what different teach- 
ers themselves propose in reference to Seminaries 
of this kind. 



CHAPTER IV. 



ON THE MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES, AS A 
MEANS OF EXCITEMENT. 

The fourth condition which contributes to in- 
crease the activity of the faculties, is their Mutual 
Influence. To employ this means it is necessary 
to understand, that each power may be active by 
its internal energy, or by its being excited by one 
or several other faculties ; and that on the other 
hand, eacli power may be inactive either by its 
want of energy, or by the influence of other facul- 
ties This consideration deserves every attention 
III practical education. It supposes in the teacher 



134 EDUCATION CF MAN. 

who wishes to reap from it all the advantages pos- 
sible, a knowledge of the primitive faculties of the 
mindj of the natural connection of their organs, 
and of the individual dispositions of him who is 
to be educated. 

It is a general law, that organic parts which 
contribute to the same function excite one another 
The organs of smell and taste, the nerves of hun^ 
ger and thirst, and the digestive power, are in in- 
timate connection. Smell and taste often whet 
appetite, and the appetite excites the sense of 
taste ; it is therefore justly said, that hunger is the 
best cook. The internal feelings are equally sub- 
ject to mutual influence. Amativeness, and philo- 
progenitiveness, frequently excite combativeness, 
viz. male animals fight more when under the in- 
fluence of amativeness than at other periods. Fe- 
males defend their young ones with more courage 
than any other object. Acquisitiveness and cau- 
tiousness, excite secretiveness to act. Attachment 
may put cautiousness into action, or we may fear 
for the sake of friends more than for others. 
Firmness may assist hope and justice, reverence 
and self-esteem ; and it may be assisted by the 
other feeUngs. In short, each feeling may be 
Btimulated by one or several others. 

Mutual influence exists, also, with respect to the 
intellectual faculties, and is called Association of 
ideas. These persons, however whc consider as 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 135 

fiocialion as a primitive power, are mistaken, for 
the activity of at least two powers, whose fuiictiuns 
are associated, is necessarily implied in its very 
existence. Now, this mutual influence takes place 
among the feelings as well as among the faculties 
of the understanding, and among feelings and in- 
tellectual faculties promiscuously ; that is, one or 
several feelings may excite intellectual operations, 
and vice versa. 

The mutual influence of the faculties is the ba- 
sis of what is called Mnemonics, or of the art of 
strengthening memory. This art is very ancient, 
but in consequence of its principles not being 
sufficiently understood, it has been rejected by 
some, and extolled to excess by others. The great 
errors committed in mnemonics, resemble those 
committed in all branches of education, and in all 
sorts of institutions. Teachers of every sort look 
upon themselves as the standard for the whole of 
mankind, and commonly have recourse to that 
faculty which is the most active in them, repro- 
duces the most easily its anterior perceptions, and 
excf tcs other powers with the greatest facility. 
They err in overlooking the differences of the 
innate dispositions and talents of different indi- 
viduals. 

The most common kind of mnemonics is found- 
ed on language; that is, woris recall individual 
notions. Written sign the same, in bringing 



38 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

to our recollection sounds and ideas ; they depend 
on the faculty of configuration. If we resolve up- 
on doing a thing in a distant place, and after set- 
ting out to go there, forget our design, and recol- 
lect it only on returning to the place where the 
resolution was first made, the power of locality is 
the means of mnemonics, and many teachers of 
mnemonics have recourse to this faculty ; they 
combine ideas with places, and in thinking of the 
latter they remember the former. It seems that 
the ancient orators employed these means, in or- 
der to learn their discourses with greater facility. 
Their proceeding appears to be indicated by the 
expressions denoting the divisions of the subject, 
such as in the first, second, and third place, &c. 
This power may indeed, if it be strong, assist the 
other faculties. Persons endowed with it, may 
divide and subdivide, in their minds, a given 
place, and put into each compartment a particu- 
lar notion, and the idea will be called to recollec- 
tion, in thinking of the corner where it has been 
lodged. Locality, however, will be of little use 
to those who possess it only in a small degree-; 
whilst if they be endowed with the power of Form 
in a high degree, they will combine a notion with 
a figure with great facility. We may also, with 
other mnemonists, have recourse to several facul- 
ties at the same time, to fix the recol estion of an 
object, 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. \S1 

This proceeding" then may be applied with great 
rdvantage in education ; but it*is to be remember 
ed, that the most active powers furnish the best 
means of mnemonics, and that any particular mode 
of association useful to one may be useless to 
another, on account of the differences in the innate 
fiiculties. The general rule is to exercise, at the 
same time, as many faculties as possible in combi 
nation with each other, and even with the senses. 
The activity of one or several faculties, may ex 
cite the peculiar action of mind we wish for. The 
smell of a flower may recall the place where we 
perceived it first, or many particular circumstan- 
ces connected with it. The powers of Compari- 
son and of Causality, are often usefully exercised 
to this purpose, particularly in persons who can- 
not learn by heart what they do not understand. 
Others who have Imitation and Ideality large, 
recollect easily things expressed with ideality. 
Every one remembers best those phenomena, or 
those points in history, which are in the most in 
timate relation with his strongest feelings and in- 
tellectual faculties. These faculties enter into ac- 
tion with the greatest facility, reproduce their sen- 
sations, that is, appear as memory, and excite the 
Dther faculties. 

The strongest illustration of the effects of m.u- 

tual influence among the faculties, is to be seen in 

the effect of emulation in children, and the desire 

of distinction among men. Many students learn 
13* 



138 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

more, in consequence of excitement produced by 
emulation, than by the innate activity of their un- 
derstandings. The love of approbation, indeed, 
may excite every other pov^er. Soldiers do not 
always behave bravely, from the desire to fight 
alone ; but sometimes they do so from love of 
glorj'. Some men of talents ruin their health by 
continued study, as frequently from a desire of 
distinction as from a strong passion for the study 
Uself. 

Acquisitiveness, or the desire of gain, is another 
great cause of excitement of other faculties. Its 
influence, and that of the Love of Approbation, 
are of such power, that many philosophers have 
considered these two motives as sufficient to ex- 
plain all particular manifestations of the mind. 
But however strong their energy may be, they 
never produce powers, they only excite the in- 
nate faculties to act. This fact ought to be 
specially attended to in education. It is under- 
stood by phrenology. If two boys possess the same 
natural endowment of the faculty of Language, 
but the one double the Love of Approbation of the 
other, he, by the influence of the latter faculty, 
may be rendered the more excellent scholar of the 
two. But if the Love of Approbation is equal in 
both, he who possesses Language naturally more 
powerful, wi.l undouttedly excel. 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. I3& 

The mutual influence of the faculties being also 
a means by which we may direct their employ- 
ment, I shall enter more into detail on this subject 
in the next Section, where I speak of the Motives 
of our Actions. 

From the considerations unfolded in the preced- 
ing Chapters, I draw the conclusions that Educa- 
tion ought to be founded on the knowledge of 
Man ; that the true principles of education ought 
not to be confounded with school-learning ; that 
great improvements rema n to be made even with 
respect to instruction in arts and sciences, and that 
the education of* the^Feelings, which I consider 
as the most important, and place far above that 
of the Understanding, will require to be quite 
newly modelled. 

It is admitted and stated in the Preface, that 
several views developed in this work are not new, 
but there is a difference betwixt knowing a fact, 
and knowing the principle of it, and Phrenology 
alone can reduce to a science and system the iso- 
lated observations which had formerly been made. 
This assertion will be farther confirmed in the 
following pages 



SECTION 11. 



ON THE DIRECTION OF THE FACULTIES. 

After having examined the conditions which 
contribute to the greater or less activity of the 
nental facuhies, I shall cetisider the dh-ection 
which ought to be given to their actions. In the 
same vi^ay as, in the first Section, I held it estab- 
lished by Phrenology, that all dispositions are in- 
nate, and that their manifestations depend on ce- 
rebral parts^ called organs ; so I suppose here, 
that my ideas on the moral nature of Man, as de- 
tailed in the second or philosophical part of Phre- 
nology, are known. Phrenology shows that there 
is a natural arrangement among the faculties, and 
this circumstance is the foundation of the moral 
character of Man. To understand fully the ideas 
unfolded in this Section, it is also necessary to be 
acquainted with the sphere of activity of each 
special faculty of the Mind, and with the modifica- 
tions of their manifestatiors. This information 
likewise is communicated in the volumes on Phrc 
nology. 



IMPORTANCE OF MORALITr. 141 

In employing- and directing the faculties of 
Mankind, we ought to proceed according to fixed 
and ascertained principles; the first and most 
important of which is, That human actions are 
objects of moral regulation : The second is, That 
each faculty has a tendency to act: The third 
concerns the knowledge of the inducements or 
sources of our actions ; and the fourth the differ- 
ence of natural gifts. I shall, therefore, divide 
this Section into four Chapters. 



CHAPTER I. 

ON THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 

According to my ideas of the moral character 
of Man, his actions ought to be subordinate^ or 
conformable to the whole of the faculties proper 
to mankind, and all actions which are in contra- 
diction to the whole of these properly human 
faculties are bad. The point which I wish now 
to impress on the minds of my readers is, that 
human nature is so constituted by the Creator, 
that morality is as necessary to the prosperity 
of Mankind, as oxygen to combustion, caloric te 
vegetation, and respiration to human life, ana 
that not the animal but the human powers are the 
end of human existence. 



142 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The primary virtues, essential to tl.e existence 
of society, are withdrawn from our election and 
choice, nor are they left to be directed only by so 
weak a principle as reason ; they are identified 
with human nature by the dictates of creation. 
Submission alone to the indispensable laws of 
morality is left to our choice. In doing so only 
can we contribute to the improvement of Man- 
kind. 

Christianity promises future rewards for every 
sort of righteousness, such being the will of the 
Creator. But, I maintain also, that morality is 
necessary in this life, not because I believe, as 
many do, that wicked persons are tormented by 
their consciences, a notion which I have endea- 
voured to explode in treating of the faculty and 
organ of Conscientiousness in the first vol. or in 
the physiological part of Phrenology; but be- 
cause I really think, that the world is so constitu- 
ted, that morality is indispensable to the general 
happiness of Mankind. 

It is objected, that the just often perishes in his 
righteousness, while the wicked often thrives in 
his iniquity ; but shall we infer from this, that 
morality 's less necessary to prosperitjr than I 
maintain ? 

The condition of individuals is subordinate to 
that of the community. On the other hand, one 
power may triumph over another for a certain 



IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 143 

time, and the animai Over man in single individu- 
als ; but such a state cannot become general, nor 
everlasting, because the animal powers, from their 
tendency to the gratification of Selfishness, would, 
if predominant, overset society ; while the powers 
proper to Mankind, are eminently conservative, 
and calculated to promote general happiness. 

I grant also, that individuals and whole nations 
will perish, if they make use only of the faculties 
proper to Man. As long as Mankind remains as at 
present constituted, these faculties will stand in 
need of the assistance of the animal powers, to 
avoid being destroyed. Society must still be pre- 
pared for war in order to maintain peace. But 
history furnishes numerous examples, that wherev- 
er mere animal faculties have governed, the sover- 
eignty did not last; morality and understanding 
being the two first principles of politics, andnece?- 
sary to direct the actions of every faculty. 

I am sorry to observe, that generally the culti- 
vation of the understanding constitutes the princi- 
pal object of education ; and that in different 
countries, the pupils of public establishments smile 
with pity at praise given for good behaviour. I 
know very well, that children of excellent conduct 
do not always excel in intellect; but we find also, 
that many young and old individuals of great un- 
derstanding do not always behave as they ought 
to do. These persons often convert their intellect 



144 EDUCATION OF MAN 

into scourges of society, and are the greatest ene- 
mies to the happiness of the race. Let the public 
beware of this in reference to authors, reviewers, 
pamphleteers, gazetteers, and writers of any kind. 
It is a too common tendency among them to say : 
I and my friends alone have understanding, we 
alone are in the right. — Let these oracles be re 
spected if they write only with conscientiousness. 
Both moral and intellectual endowments are im- 
portant, and therefore ought to be cultivated «in 
harmony. By neglecting one or both, societies 
and even nations will come to an end. 

In examining Mankind at large, we shall find 
that general happiness is founded more on morali- 
ty than on intellect. Public establishments for 
relieving distress, improving morality and cor- 
recting manners, are more beneficial to society 
than colleges for ihe study of mathematics under 
the government of conquerors. Morality ought 
to be the aim, and understanding but a means of 
attaining it. Those, however, who know my 
ideas on the primitive powers of Man, and on 
their moral arrangement, will know that I distin- 
guish morality from religious creeds ; that my 
God is a God of union, who wishes to save and 
not to destroy ; and that, in my opinion, charity, 
or general love, is the greatest of virtues. They 
will perceive that I do not agree v/ith teachers 
who place the love of their country, and that of 
glory, above the love of Mankind; and that ? 



IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 145 

maintain the antliority and the advantage of the 
Christian principle, which commands us to ove 
every one as our neighbor. Jesus called liim his 
brother who did the will of his Father. I allow, 
that we owe obligations to our parents, and to our 
country ; indeed I admit that there is a priiuitive 
reeling of attachment to all beings around us. But 
th.is propensity is given also to the lower animals, 
and is far inferior to general love. He who con- 
siders the wants of the poor, and the causes of 
those wants ; the deserts of the poor, the possi- 
bility and necessary means of improving their sit- 
uation ; who will never encourage idleness and 
disorder ; who considers attachment as a quality 
oi^ secondary weight ; who relieves liim first that 
deserves it best ; and who prefers his countrymen, 
only in so far as they are equally meritorious, is fai 
nobler than those who are influenced by the love 
of their country, or by a religious creed alone, to 
tlie neq-lect of this universal Benevolence. 

It is a touchstone of superiority among the 
faculties that their influence is more universal. 
The animal feelings contribute to the preservation 
of individuals, of societies, and in a certain de- 
gree of the species. Human feelings alone place 
society above individuals, and species above so- 
cieties. They coincide with the proceedings of 
natiU'e. Individuals perish, while nations con 
tinue ; and these disappear while mankind is pre 
14 



146 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

served. The faculties which proauce such eflects 
must be important in proportion. 

¥/hen I s ate that the sphere of the faculties 
proper to Man, is more extensive than that of the 
animal powers, this must not be confounded with 
the other proposition ; that a faculty is more or 
less generally bestowed by nature. The meaning 
of the latter is, that a faculty exists in a greater or 
smaller number of species, while the former de- 
notes that the influence of a faculty extends over 
more beings. Amativeness is very general, while 
Christian charity is confined to Mankind ; but the 
effect of this latter feeling embraces all beings, 
while that of the former is infinitely more limited. 

Thus, in all actions, Morality is to be kept in 
view as the aim and end. Man, by superior 
powers, is the lord of the terrestrial creation ; but 
the same feelings which constitute his superiority 
command him not to abuse other beings. A lower 
propensity excites Man to kill animals, in order to 
live on them ; but the superior feelings forbic us 
to torment them. 

All sects of religion must agree that morality s 
necessary to the welfare of the human race, how- 
ever different their opinions may be about the 
mode of attaining it. But I have no hesitation in 
declaring against any creed that undermines chari- 
ty, and which teaches children that those who do 



IMPORTANCE OP MORALITY. 147 

not belies e as they themselves do, and i at those 
who wish to adopt different means in order to 
please their Maker, are damned. As Christianity 
evidently tends to unite all men in the presence 
of God, it appears to me +hat we are entitled to 
reject every interpretation of any passage of the 
Gospel which does not agree with general peace. 
The superiority of the Christian principles of mo- 
rality, is proved and recommended by their good 
effects ; and, in this way, belief is converted into 
conviction. 

Modified ideas about the means of pleasing God 
are natural, and present a large field for teaching 
tolerance and mutual forbearance. Various for- 
malities are considered as agreeable to God ; but 
history informs us, that many of those, used by 
different sects, are borrowed from paganism. 
Every one ought to be permitted to do as he thinks 
right, unless the general happiness of Mankind be 
disturbed by it. I think that he is too proud 
who believes that he ean add to, or exalt the hap- 
piness of his Creator, to whose dictates all that 
man can do is to submit. In submitting to his 
dictates, we practice the true and undefiled re- 
ligion, viz. in this way we show that we are tied 
to God, and obey his will. Thus, it is an important 
point, in teaching religion, never to confound the 
aim with the means. The former is universal hap- 
piness, and loving our neighbor as one's self. The 
means which lead to it are various, and differee 



148 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ces of opinion in regard to them are to be expected. 
It seems, however, a great error to look for hap 
piness from Divine influence, while the natural 
means of producing it, appointed by the Creator 
to be observed, in the ordinary way of Providence, 
are neglected. 



CHAPTER II. 

EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 

The faculties are innate and active in different 
degrees ; but each desires to be satisfied, and aP 
are necessarj^ ; hence it would be wrong to en- 
deavor to annihilate or to neglect any one in the 
institutions of society ; whilst the acts of every 
individual power may be morally good or bad, 
that is, conformable or contrary to the whole of 
the faculties proper to Man. In order to elucidate 
this subject, I shall make first a few general re- 
marks, and then subjoin some details concerning 
the primitive powers. 

In the greater number of persons, the lower 
faculties are the most active, and several of them 
more so than others. This explains the great ac- 
tivity of the animal nature of man. Again, sitigle 
individuals, each of the sexes, the inhabitants of 
certain provinces, and whole nations, pcssess in- 



EACH lACULTT TENDS TO ACTION. 149 

dividual faculties more active than others. These 
primitive dispositions, then, must first be studied 
and each power cultivated in harmony with the 
dictates of general morality, and with the particu- 
lar situation of the na^tion, sex, or individual in 
question. Any feeling that is naturally too active, 
should never be exerted. Hence, in those children 
and nations, whose character is strongly marked 
by the love of approbation, this feeling should 
never be nourished by education. For, if pre- 
dominant, it becomes the cause of great mischief, 
and it is evidently a great fault to encourage it 
continually, and to hold out approbation and glory 
as the principal reward of every action. If, among 
other nations, Self-esteem be the strongest feeling, 
it should not be encouraged. Such children are 
to be accustomed to attend to what others say of 
them, and to be spoken to freely of their faults. 

On the other hand, no strong feeling can be 

overcome at once ; its activity will appear in one 

way or another, and the object of the teacher or 

governor ought to be to make the best use of it. 

The love of approbation, for instance, may lead 

to war or peace, to idleness or industry, to vice or 

virtue, according to the object approved of by the 

directors. It is the same with every fundamental 

power. Has not every crime been committed, 

and every virtue exercised, under pretence of 

glorifying God, or of o'. eying God rather than 

men ? 

14* 



150 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The imprcvement of mankind has been greatly 
retarded by the erroneous notion of our being 
born alike in feelings and understanding, and of 
our being capable of becoming whatever teachers 
please. On account of the diiferences in the in- 
nate faculties, on the contrary, education must be 
modified in many respects even for nations, as well 
as for individuals and sexes. As the inhabitants of 
cities cannot digest the food on which savages will 
thrive, so civilized nations stand in need of princi- 
ples which cannot enter into the brains of igno- 
rant and uncivilized persons. There are many 
examples in history, where nations have been un- 
grateful to their governors, who have endeavour- 
ed to improve their condition. Missionaries, who 
preach to ignorant and barbarous tribes in the 
same way as to enlightened people, cannot produce 
the desired effect. New-born children cannot bear 
too much light at once ; and the mind, like the 
eyes, must be accustomed by degrees to new im 
pressions. 

On the other hand, governments are wrong if 
they retard the attainment of the degree of civili 
zation which their nations require. They are 
mistaken in thinking, that the special tendency of 
primitive faculties can be prohibited by mere com- 
mandment. As no institution, having for its ob- 
ject the annihilation of amativeness, acquisitive- 
ness, t: le love of approbation, or any other feelings 
given )y the Creator, can be permanent ; as its 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 151 

duration will be shortened, in proportion as such 
feelings are more active, in the same way, as soon 
ai our understanding is arrived at a higher degree 
of cultivation, such institutions as are adapted to 
dark ages will no longer suffice. 

The faculties proper to Man being given to 
govern every where, are to be cultivated inces- 
santly, and in every one, whilst the powers com- 
mon to man and animals, should be encouraged 
only in so far as they contribute to the great end 
of the satisfaction of the properly human nature, 
or to general happiness. The animal faculties 
may be employed as means, but not any one 
should become the aim of our existence. They 
may do good, when subordinate, but they produce 
much evil, as soon as their gratification becomes 
the aim of life. It is remarkable, that all institu- 
tions, true Christianity excepted, are founded on 
selfish principles, and that by far the greater num- 
ber of the motives, which they propose to man- 
kind, originate in the animal feelings. 

The regulation of the mode in which gratifica- 
tions are sought, is an important pomt in educa- 
tion. Each faculty when active, wishes to be sat- 
isfied, and will excite those powers which may 
become the means of its gratification. Suppose, 
for example, that we have a desire to be distin- 
guished, we may fight, destroy, calculate, culti- 
vate arts, &c. according as distinction is likely to 



152 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

follcw the performance of such and such actions^ 
To g-ain eternal happiness, we may do and we may 
omit various things, according as we are taugh* 
that it is to result from the one or the other. 
Selfishness, in general, is a great stimulus. The 
gratification of individual faculties may even be 
come a means of obviating their abuses. Acquisi- 
tiveness, for instance, may be prevented from 
stealing and cheating, &c. by placing before the 
mind the consequences of illegal actions, and by 
showing, that the best calculated selfishness is that 
which is combined with honesty. 

Though it is a pity, ■that, in conmion education, 
the satisfaction of the inferior facuhies is generally 
represented as the aim of our existence, and of the 
whole of our actions ; their gratifications, how- 
ever, may be of great use, being a source of 
pleasure, and the contrary a punishment. The 
idle being pleased by vacancy ; the dainty- 
mouthed by cakes and sweatmeats ; the vain by 
decorations, fine clothes, titles, and every kind of 
showy appearance ; the mechanician by ingenious- 
ly contrived instruments ; the painter by colours 
There are as many sorts of reward or punishment 
as natural gifts, but the gratification of those pow- 
ers which are not requisite to our profession, 
should be only an object of reward and recreation, 
the difference between aim and mea is being con- 
Btantly attended to. 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 153 

A question which ha-s been often repeated 
by philosophers, may be brought in here, viz. 
Whether it is better to have many or few wants ? 
Want is here synonj^mous with Desire, or. the ten- 
dency of individual faculties to seek gratification ; 
and there are as many sorts of wants or desires as 
there are primitive powers. 

To answer this question, we must bear in mind, 
that the satisfaction of each desire gives pleasure ; 
that there are as many sorts of pleasure as there 
are faculties, and that desires and pleasures are 
proportionate to the activity of the powers ; more- 
over, that the pains, displeasures, or states of dis- 
satisfaction, are also as numerous as, and propor- 
tionate to the activity of, the faculties. Thus, 
wants or active faculties may render us happy or 
unhappy. 

In order to prepare happiness for ourselves, let 
us exercise those faculties which we have the pow- 
er of gratifying, and check the activity of those 
which we cannot satisfy ; taking constantly for 
granted, that morality is the aim of our life, and 
that no animal power shall be permitted to become 
predominant ; that Ostentation, for instance, must 
remain subordinate to Justice, and that spending 
our superfluities on purposes useful to society, is 
preferable to employing them in the gi atification 
of any animal propensity 



154 EDUCATION JFMAN. 

The proper employment of the faci nes being 
so important, this knowledge is not only neces- 
sary to teachers and governors, hot it should be 
come an object of instruction for every person, 
and be taught and learned by heart. 

We must eat and drink, because we must 
change the substance of our body, and we are 
excited to do so by hunger and thirst. But the 
laws of digestion and nutrition might be explain- 
ed, the respective organs shown, and the necessity 
of submitting to the dictates of creation taught. 
The knowledge of the general rules of Hygeia is 
useful to every one. Let then children know, 
that they must eat to live, but that they do not 
live to eat and to drink; let them feel the advan- 
tages of sobriety, and the consequences of indi- 
gestion ; let them see the vice of gluttony and 
drunkenness in nature, and be accustomed to tem- 
perance, and to the moderate use of every sort of 
food. It will be easy to render them attentive to 
the quantity and quality of aliments necessary to 
be taken, and to those which do not agree with 
their digestive organs. It is important that they 
should be able to resist the desire to eat of every 
dish that is placed on the table. But it is a great 
fault of parents and teachers to preach sobriety, 
and themselves to give a contrary example. The 
example is more effectual than the jrecept. 1 
think it is also wrong to give dainties and liquors to 
children as rewards, for it is in this manner that 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 155 

they are taught to value them. They may enjoy 
the sense of taste, but they ought not to be govern- 
ed by it. 

In speaking of hunger and thirst, food, beverage 
and nutrition, a great deal of knowledge may be 
given to children at table, with revSpect to the 
natural history of the three kingdoms, and with 
respect to chemistry and physiology. Parents 
might direct the conversation towards convenient 
subjects, and enter into farther explanations after 
dinner. Certainly this supposes the parents them- 
selves to be well informed, which, however, is 
too frequently not the case. The duty of instruc- 
tion devolves particularly on the mother ; but to 
be able to do her duty, she must have acquired 
notions herself. If there be several children, the 
elder may assist the mother in informing the 
younger. 

Is not the great curiosity of children a hint of 
Nature, that they ought to be made acquainted 
with many subjects ? Why then do we not rather 
cherish than suppress it ? We should always 
answer, even when questions are put to which 
delicacy does not allow us to reply. In such 
cases, we may find an excuse by observing, that 
they are not yet able to understand the thing. 
This will be believed, if we show them the reality 
of such an excuse in other examples. But they 
must never be told they ought net to know sucli 



!I56 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

thing's. A formal denial will excite their 
osity. 

The o3Jects which concern cookery, eatinfy- and 
drinking", and play thing-s, furnish sufficient uiat- 
ter to different conversations. We may put ques- 
tions about the origin, usefulness, and preparations 
of aliments. Each object will offer a large field 
of information. I suppose, for example's sake, 
that potatoes are placed on the table, the mother 
may ask, To what kingdom of natural history do 
they belong ? According to the age of the chil- 
dren, various questions may be added. After the 
first notions are communicated, the mother may 
continue to inquire about the parts of the plant 
which we eat under the name Potatoes. The dis- 
cussion again will require to be more or less de- 
tailed, according to the capacities of the children. 
Whatever cannot be shown at home, could be 
noticed on taking walks into the fields or else- 
where. In what country are potatoes indigenous ? 
Geography will come in. How are they culti- 
vated, &c. Then notions of agriculture may be 
communicated. 

Another time, the mother may begin a conver- 
sation concerning bread. Children may Jearn the 
difference between rye, wheat, oats, &c. ; the man- 
ner of grinding corn, of baking bread, &c. In 
this way, every article may be made an object of 
instructiDn and amusement Children will learn 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 157 

ideas aad combine them ; they will know every 
thing around them, and will feci a desire to know 
it. The J will at the same time learn to think 
when they speak, and to express no ideas without 
reflecting on them. 

Bodily exercise is another important point in 
education. Muscular activity is greater in child 
hood than in any later age. It is necessary to the 
development of the body and to health. To 
keep children quiet is acting against nature. The 
body, the intellectual and moral faculties, may be 
exercised at the same time. Playing is to be con- 
sidered as a mere change of occupation, and many 
things may be taught by means of it ; to dance, 
for instance, to climb, to leap, to swim, to go on 
horseback, to fence, &c. belong to a true plan of 
education. The muscles of the arms, or legs, or 
trunk may be exercised according to the utilitv 
of such exercise in any future situation, or accord- 
ing to their local weakness. All gymnastic amuse- 
ments serve to these purposes. It is to be under- 
stood, that bodily exercise ought to be proportion- 
ate to the innate strength and progressive growth 
of the individuals, and not beyond the innate ca-' 
pacity, since in that case the misapplication of a 
principle will do harm. It :s said, that Milo 
carried on his shoulders a calf day by day, till it 
was lull grown. 



15 



158 EDUCATION OF MAN- 

On the play-ground, children may be made ac- 
quainted with a great number of objects, their 
physical qualities, such as form, dimensions, 
weight, color, distances, phenomena of hydrau- 
lics, mechanics, and chemistry. Nothing, for in- 
stance, is more easy than to teach what is called 
gravity, affinity, attraction. Let children collect 
stones of different specific weight, let them make 
figures in the sand, such as circles, triangles, 
squares. They will learn such notions with less 
pleasure when they are confined to the benches. 
It is known, that girls, in amusing themselves with 
dolls, exercise many faculties necessary to their 
future condition in life. 

The external senses deserve particular attention. 
Though they are not sufficient to make us ac- 
quainted with the external world, they are, never- 
theless, indispensable means to acquire distinct 
perceptions. Blind and deaf persons show, how 
in the former the sense v. "* touch, and in the latter 
that of sight, can be improved. For those who 
feel an aversion to touch innoxious insects, for in- 
stance, a lizard, a frog, a crawfish, or even velvet 
and other tactile objects, an early habit of doing 
so is advisable. It is the same with regard to a 
dislike to certain smells, tastes, colors or sounds. 
The ears ought to be exercised to bear the noise 
of a gun, of thunder, &c 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 169 

Children ought to be accustomed to speak loud, 
and to pronounce all 'possible sounds and articula- 
tions, ev^en those of such foreign languages as they 
will be obliged to learn ; for almost every lan- 
guage has its particuliar sounds which we pro- 
nounce with difficulty, if we have not been early 
accustomed to them. Accordingly, nations who 
have the greatest number of sounds in their speech, 
learn the most easily to pronounce foreign lan- 
guages, since they know their articulations, by 
having met with similar sounds in their own lan- 
guage. The French and English having no gut- 
tural sounds in their language, find it difficult to 
imitate them in the German. The Germans, on the 
contrary, who have not sounds of j and v of the 
French, or of th in the English, acquire them with 
difficulty. The inhabitants of Otaheite, when 
trying to pronounce the name of Cook, always 
said Toutou. 

As to the internal pov/ers, it is a great fault in 
education, to think exclusively of the intellectual 
faculties, and to try to conduct rrankind by pre- 
cepts. It never should be forgotten, that children, 
as well as adult persons, always act by feelings, 
and that charity and justice are no sciences, and 
that knowledge is not virtue. Precepts alone 
have no more effect on feelings than on under 
standing. To say, be just, patient, and benevo 
lent, will neither produce nor exercise justice, pa- 
tience, nor benevolence, any more than we should 



160 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

nnderstand mathematics, chemistry tir philosophy, 
if we were only exhorted to study them. Pre- 
cepts must be put into execution, and this alone is 
of practical use. Two ideas, then, must be well 
understood ; first, that the fa^.ulties which give 
feelings, and those which constitute intellect, ex- 
ist independently of each other ; and, secondly, 
that they act in different degrees of force in chil- 
dren as well as adults. In this sense, we may say, 
with De la Motte, that the child is already a 
man, and the man still a child. It is the same 
idea which De la Bruyere on characters (T. 
II. chap, xi.) has detailed, in stating, that chil- 
dren, like adults, are affectionate or selfish, coura- 
geous or timid, candid or disengenuous, lazy or 
industrious, benevolent or envious, peaceable oi 
quarrelsome, unsteady or persevering, humble oi 
proud, just or unjust. The powers are, indeed 
the same in children and adults ; they are onl) 
applied to different objects. The same person, 
when a child, may be jealous or envious about 
sweetmeats, and when adult, about places of 
honor. The same faculty renders a child self- 
willed, a boy disobedient, and a man mutinous. 
Mr. Combe has well expressed the same idea ; 
" The child," says he, " who trembles at the 
threat of being shut up in a dark closet ; who ex- 
hibits to us with delight his new suit of clothes ; 
who fights about a marble ; or who covets 
his neighbor's top, is under the influence of 
the same faculties, which, iu future years, may 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 161 

make him tremble under the anticipatior. of a fall 
of stocks ; make hhn desire to be invested with a 
star and garter ; contend for an island or a king- 
dom, or lead him to covet his neighbor's proper- 
ty." (Essays on Phrenology, p. 315.) Hence 
the individual tendencies must be observed, im- 
peded, or encouraged and directed. A young 
girl, whom I knew, was prohibited from being 
imperious to servants and common people ; she 
continued to amuse herself with giving orders tc 
such of her playthings as represented servants, 
and with scolding them. When she was told that 
she committed a fault, she excused herself by say- 
ing, that it was merely a play. Bat the parents 
were intelligent enough not to confound the feel- 
ing of self-esteem with any object of its satisfac- 
tion, and this amusement was equally interdicted. 

In the cultivation of the feelings the natural lan- 
guage is of the greatest importance. Have the 
feeling which you wish to inspire, speak its nat 
ural language, and you will impress the juve 
nile minds. Avoid particularly the natural ex 
pressions of the inferior affections, as of anger^ 
jealousy, envy, impatience, &c. In sho*-.ving an- 
ger to children, you give a practical lesson. Follow 
the example of the philosopher who said : I should 
punisli you if I were not angry. ■ 

If any inferior feeling be too energetic, it is 

proper to avoid every circumstance that may put 
15* 



IG2 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

it into action. Accordingly, never vex quarrel 
some or obstinate children, particnla ly do not at 
leng-th yield to them and let them have their own 
way ; never desire such children 1»o do what is 
unjust ; make every demand on them quietly, but 
never yield. - 

It is essential to know which faculties assist 
each other, and which act in opposition, in order 
to direct the actions and omissions of man. At- 
tachment will generally rest on objects, men, ani- 
mals or things, v/hereby the other feelings may 
be satisfied at the same time, or, at least, not pre 
vented from being so. It is assisted by mildness 
and cautiousness. Children endowed with these 
feelings, and with ideality and love of approbation, 
in a high degree, in order that they may not be de- 
ceived in their dealings with man, should be made 
acquainted with the difference of men, and with 
the various motives of their actions. 

Courage is not given to indulge quarrelsome- 
ness and anger, nor to effect gratification of ven- 
geance. Its aim is to defend what is absolutely 
just. If not active enough, it ought to be en- 
couraged, not only by words, but by exposing the 
individual to situations which may appear annoy- 
ing. Timid children will become less fearful by 
being accustomed to societj'. If courage be too 
strong, its bad consequence^ may be shown ; and 
according to circumstances attachment, selfish 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 163 

ness, the love of approbation, or the moral feel- 
ings, may be opposed as motives to restrain it. 

The faculty of Firmness greatly assists the ac- 
tivity of every other power, but it also produces 
many disorders, particularly if it be naturally 
strong in combination with large self-esteem, and 
ii^ parents, m order to form the character of their 
children, as they say, allow them the gratification 
of every fancy. Such beings are exasperated by 
the least resistance in future life, and become fre- 
quently unhappy. Firmness alone will never pro- 
duce great actions. It only causes the active fac- 
ulties to persevere. Hence the same person may 
persevere much in one respect, and very little in 
another. It has particular influence on self-esteem, 
the love of approbatian, conscientiousness and 
reverence. Ideality and the want of order and 
time, are in opposition to perseverance. 

The direction of amativeness and of the reli- 
gious sentiments is of prime influence. These 
feelings appear commonly later, sometimes, how- 
ever, earlier in life. 

The longer the diflerence of the sexes can be 
concealed from children, the better. But as soon 
as children are inclined to abuse their perse us, let 
them know the dreadful consequences of such a 
vice on the whole body, and on the manifestations 
of the mind. Inca culable mischief is done to in 



164 EDUCATION OP >IAN. 

dividuals and to mankind at large ly the abuses 
of araativeness. Many become insane, and, in nii- 
meroiis cases, mind and body are ruined and aL 
happiness undermined, by its disorderly gratifica- 
tions. Parents and teachers commonly are not 
watchful enough in this respect. The picture 
may be varied, according to the knowledge of the 
child, and to the bad effects which are already 
visible in him. Every thing which excites ner- 
vous irritability, and accelerates the circulation of 
the blood, must be avoided. Bodily exercise, 
however, cannot be dispensed with, as it is neces- 
sary to produce sleep. If the functions of propa- 
gation be known, the influence of the vice, not 
only on him, but on generations to come, may be 
detailed Many ideas of this kind are mentioned 
in books on physical education. I refer to them, 
mentioning again, that a too anxious taciturnity 
of parents concerning these points, will rather do 
harm than good, because the propensity is innate, 
and acts without restraint, if its destination, and 
tbe consequences of its abuses, be not clearly 
shown to children. Being informed of its import- 
ance, they will more readily resist, and submit to 
^!u)se means wliicli seem necessary to restrain it. 

The regulation of the religious feelings also de- 
t^ei ves great attention. It is known how very dif- 
ferent the ways of worshipping have been, fron) 
human sacrifices to adoration in spirit and in tiuth. 
It is remarkable that at all times continency ijas 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 65 

been considered as agreeable to God. The priests 
of the ancient Egyptians avoided wine and wives. 
The Levites were forbidden to have intercourse 
with females daring the time of their sacerdotal 
service. In Ceylon and Siam the priests are pro- 
hibited from marrying. The Roman Church re 
quires an observance of a similar law. 

Religious precepts of various kinds, and the 
most opposite opinions, when proposed as the will 
of God, have been listened to. The majority of 
mankind is credulous. Say that it is necessary to 
sncriftce animals, to burn perfume, to ring bells, to 
fast, to sing, to make prostrations, to dance, to 
whip the body, or to do various other things in 
honor of God, and man will comply. Even those 
who reflect for themselves, and admit the revela- 
tion of Christian principles, will dilTerin their ex- 
plication of them. The question, then, is often 
put. Who can decide which is the true religion ? 
As the tree is known by its fruit, so is the man by 
his actions, and a doctrine by its effects. I think 
that the touchstone of every principle, religious 
and moral, is the same, viz. its tendency to pro- 
mote the glory of God and the common happi- 
ness of oiankind. It is absurd, and even blasphe- 
mous, to hold ont any doctrine as coming from 
God, the manifest tendency of which is to inflict 
evil. I adopt, therefore, only that explanation of 
every passage of Christianity which favors gener- 
al love. 



166 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

There are religious people who agree with re- 
spect to principles, bat vary as to the particular 
application of them. They insist nrmch on some, 
and are indifferent about other points ; and some- 
times follow the absurdities of their own imagina- 
tions ; they explain c.ie passage of the Gospe-1 ac- 
cording to its spirit, and take another literally. 
Others admit the principles, and say that they 
believe in them, but care very little for their prac- 
tice ; whereas the least portion of intelligence and 
honesty might enable them to perceive, that the 
practice is better than the mere assertion of be- 
lief. 

In religious education, as well as in every other 
sort of instruction, three things are particularly to 
be kept in view ; first. The objects taught must 
be suitable to the station of those instructed ; 
secondly, the knowledge communicated must be 
applicable ; and, thirdly. The necessary means to 
attaining the end must be pointed out and attend- 
ed to. With respect to the first point, the choice 
of objects to be taught, there can be little difficul- 
ty in deciding between the advantages of commu- 
nicating a knowledge of fabulous tales or exam- 
ples of moral conduct ; of teaching habitual char- 
ity or vice. Children ought to be taught that 
moral conduct is the aim and end of their exist- 
ence, and that morality is indispensable to the 
welfare of individuals and of society. And mo- 
ralises, who wish for the iniprovemeiit of mankind. 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 167 

ought not to reject any means of attaining that 
end, except those which have been tried and found 
ineffectual ; but these shoukl be given up, of what 
ever date and authority they may be. and on!y 
<^^hose that prove useful be employed. 

Thus, all powers should be directed with a view 
to practical life, the intellectual faculties to the ac- 
quisition of positive knowledge, and the feelings 
to the promotion of the general welfare. 

There is another great error committed in many 
schools of England, viz. the third part of the year 
is given up to idleness. This may be necessary, 
because the objects to be taught are few, and be- 
cause the faculties employed are fatigued, and re- 
quire rest or vacation-days ; but these might be 
filled up by the useful employment of other facul- 
ties, which could be exercised one after another. 
In that way more knowledge would be acquired, 
and sufficient time allowed for relaxation to the 
mdividual faculties. 

Natural history, mechanical and chemical ex- 
periments, are well suited to the capacities of 
youth, and would delight many ; architecture, 
painting, music, geography, theatrical perform- 
ances, &c. would please others. No better recre- 
ation would be wished for. The great error is, 
that all children are obliged to learn the same 
things ; the boys Latin and Greek, and the girls 



168 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

music and drawing. Yet out of the prodig ous 
number of girls who learn these arts, how few are 
there, who, after they become mistresses of their 
own time, and after they have the choice of their 
own amusements, continue to practice them for the 
pure pleasure they afford. Even those who take 
pleasure in good music, are better pleased with 
hearing others than in performing themselves. 
How often are the labors of years, and the expen- 
diture of large sums of money, lost in this way ? 
What a pity- that we are obliged to learn so many 
things for no end but to forget them ' 

Accomplishments in general are not sufficiently 
distinguished from necessary and useful instruc- 
tion. The latter is often neglected, and things 
are taught for which children have no taste, such 
as drawing and music, while they never would 
take a pencil in their hand nor play a tune from 
choice. How glad are they, therefore, when the 
time for lessons and masters is over, when they 
are of age, and their education is finished. Many 
women, possessed of such accomplishments, never 
toU'Ch the heart of a man. They have learnt 
many things except those they ought to know. 
They find a partner only for their money, but the 
result of such a union is daily seen. Leisure time 
alone should be filled up by accomplishments, and 
whoever does not cultivate them from his own 
impulse, should not cultivate them at al 



LAC II FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 169 

Orde: is of great importance in onr afiairs 
Children ouglit to be accustomed to take care of 
whatever belongs to them, and young females 
shoi]ld be exercised in keeping the family-accounts. 
Order does not depend only on the understanding, 
but it requires also experience. This cannot be 
infused into the mind by precept, but nnist be 
acquired by practice. Every one should learn to 
employ his own powers, and to- regulate his own 
conduct, and for that purpose he should be placed 
into various situations, and left to his own re- 
sources. This is particularly necessary to boys. 
Girls are more dependent, and, in many respects, 
th*:y may be accustomed to trust to the experience 
of others, and to conform to the customs of society. 
They must be more reserved in manners and in 
their moral conduct, because their faults are of 
greater consequence than those of boys to their 
station in society ; for repentance and tears will 
not wash out tlie errors and immoral conduct of 
girls. On the other hand however, prudery should 
be avoided with the same carefulness, and not be 
confounded with delicacy and modesty. 

Delicacy of sentiment and refined manners are 
a great ornament, and ought always to be cultiva- 
ted. All odd motions or attitudes, and awkward 
gestures, should be watched, and prevented from 
becoming habitual 



17^> EDUCATION OP MAN 

The rcdccLiiig faculties derferve particular care 
Let children be tc/jght, if possible, to understand 
wliat they say and do, and to express their own 
ideas with prccisior. I have already mentioned, 
that those persons are mistaken, who think that 
reasoning can be improved only by one sort of 
study, such as of language or mathematics. Th(^ 
I'.ict is, that studying any branch accurately, ap- 
plying judgment to it, and reflecting on the rela- 
tions of Cause and Effect which it exhibits, will 
cultivate the reasoning powers with equal effect. 
Comparison and Causality are necessary in impor- 
tant and in trifling things. If children have great 
difficulty in reasoning, the first attempt here, as 
in every other branch, is the most difficult part of 
the work. We should therefore allow them time 
to reflect, and wish that they should rather ac- 
quire one distinct idea, than many confused no- 
tions of different things. 

The erroneous method of instruction generally 
pursued, is the cause why many, when at the end 
of their school-education, must become their own 
teachers. Those who have not talent or courage 
enough to do so, remain within the circle of me- 
diocrity, and are mere foLowers in the paths of 
others. Yet copying, or merely imitating others, 
is the death of arts and sciences 

I conclude this Chapter with repeating, that 
each facfxty tends to act ; that each faculty may be 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 171 

used and abased; that all faculties ought to be 
employed in auginentiiig" the common happiness ; 
and that moral condact and reflection are the prin- 
cipal means of producing it; but that precepts 
alone v\all not change and improve mankind 
Their influence is little in comparison to that of 
social intercourse. The manners of the world, 
the spirit of families and of parties, customs and 
received opinions, are often opposite to those 
which we are taught at school. We hear sobriety 
praised, and in our families we find luxury ; disin- 
terested conduct is highly spoken of in our books, 
but we live in the midst of a crowd of busy 
creatures, whose most anxious thoughts are direct- 
ed towards gain and vanity ; and we observe, that 
respect and consideration are paid to others in 
proportion to their wealth, idleness, privileges, 
and fanciful, nay selfish distinctions. School 
education is then soon forgotten. Whoever, there- 
fore, has an influence on society, let him contri- 
bute all in his power to cause the same spirit to 
prevail in education, in legislation, in social inter 
course, in writings, in arts, and in sciences. 



CHAPTER III. 

THERE IS NO ACTION tVITHOUT A MOTIVE. 

The principle that no action takes place with 
•t a motive, is the same as that there is no eflfect 



172 EDUCATION OF MA??. 

-» 

without a cause, and the law of causatioi exists in 
the riK^ral as well as the physical world. Yet the 
nature of the motives of our actions, and their ori- 
gin, aie not sufficiently understood. 

As long as it is believed that education can cre- 
ate faculties, the whole of mankind will be treated 
in the same manner, and the same motives will be 
proposed to ail men. But when we know the in- 
fluence of innate dispositions, we perceive the ne- 
cessity of having recourse in each person to his 
natural powers, and of fortifying or guiding them 
by cultivation. 

I here repeat, that our feelings, inferior and su- 
perior, furnish the principal motives of our actions, 
that, in consequence, the motives are different like 
the faculties themselves; but that the proper auii 
or object of our actions is only one. I take it also 
for granted, that the cultivation of the faculties 
proper to man is the aim of his existence ; since 
they alone constitute moral rectitude, and. general 
happiness, and submission to the laws cf creation. 

The superior faculties, when they act by them- 
selves from their internal energy, do so with 
pleasure, and constitute the kingdom of love. But, 
whenever they must be excited in any way, or 
when the energy of the inferior faculties requires 
to be moderated or restrained, then government 
and obedience, or the rule of the law, begins. As 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. KS 

the inferior faculties, however, exist in human na- 
ture, and stand in need of constant regulation, it is 
evident, that Jesus, i:i His own person fulfilled the 
law and could not abolish it. Its existence wag 
the v/ill of His heavenly Father, and the constitu 
tion of human nature evidently requires it. 

The motives arising from the superior faculties 
of man, are also termed Religious and Moral; re- 
ligious, as far as we stand in relation to God as 
governor and ruler; and moral, in so far as it is 
our duty to act in such or such a manner with re- 
spect to mankind. 

There can be no doubt that our Maker has 
bound us by laws which must be obeyed. These 
laws are established by the Creator, and have been 
confirmed by revelation. Man is a moral being, 
and the law of his natural morality has been con- 
firmed by Jesus. This matter, exercising the 
greatest influence on the happiness of Man, is con- 
sidered, with details, in my work on the Philo- 
sophical Principles of Phrenology. 

Children may soon be made to comprehend 

that they cannot change the laws of nature, and 

to see the necessity of submitting to them. When 

they understand the tendency of these laws, they 

will feel respect and veneration for that Almighty 

Being who instituted them, and for His all-wise 

appointments. But it will be a matter of greater 
16*= 



174 EDUCATION OF MAN 

oifficulty to make every one comprehend and hon- 
estly love the genera^ good as the aim of our ex- 
istence, though it is conformable equally to the 
law, natural and revealed. The desire for the 
common welfare of mankind, is not strong enough 
in man, to allow us to depend on it as a sufficient 
motive of self-direction, and, accordingly, various 
means have been, and still must be employed, in 
order to direct our actions towards this point. A 
knowledge of the different motives of our actions, 
then, is indispensable. If the moral law be writ- 
ten in the heart of a man, that is, if the faculties 
of conscientiousness. Benevolence, and Reverence 
be naturally most powerful in any person, let us 
appeal to them. If another be more disposed to 
obey, because it is commanded by the revealed 
law, that is, if his Hope and Marvellousness be 
naturally the most powerful faculties, let us not 
reject these motives. The same aim is to be at- 
tained, but the means may vary. 

If the superior motives of man ;— his natural 
charity, his religious faith, and his reasoning 
powers are not sufficient to direct his actions, in- 
ferior motives must be employed, such as love of 
approbation, acquisitiveness, reward and punish- 
ment, fear, &c. Many persor.s are prevented 
from stealing, through the criminal code, or the 
fear of hell, 2Y oi being dishonored. 



MOTIVES Oc ACTIONS. 175 

The kingdom of fear and selfishness is infinitely 
more jextensive than that of love. The former 
has existed, exists, and will long- continue to exist, 
but the latter cannot come, as long as selfishness 
and the love of approbation are presented as the 
aim of our conduct. While these are considered 
p,s the objects of human existence, conquerors will 
prevail over their satellites, like Brennus, who 
sent wine from Italy to his countrymen, saying, 
If you like this wine, come and help me to con 
quer the country where it grows. 

It is essentia, for a teacher, or any one who di 
rects others, to know that diflerent motives may 
produce the same action in different persons. 
One child may behave well through attachment 
to his parents ; another through fear, or the love 
of approbation ; a third through selfish views, or 
a feeling of duty. 

Moreover, it ought to be kept in view as a 
principle in moral and intellectual education, that 
children do many things by mere imitation. They 
often adopt the manner of thinking and acting of 
those with whom they live. They consider as 
good that which they hear praised and see don 
by their parents. For this reason we know by 
the cluldren whether we are liked or disliked in a 
family. Tliis propensity to imitate will produce 
most effect in children whose natural character is 
not very determinate, and in them it may be a[)- 



176 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

plied with advantage as a means of instruction. 
Parents therefore become the best moral teachers \ 
but let their moral conduct agree with their pre- 
cepts, if they expect to produce any effect by their 
teaching. If they show in words an abhorrence 
of vice, let not their actions be stained by impuri- 
ty. When they teach their children to avoid bad 
company, and to esteem virtue and excellence 
above the distinctions of wealth and rank, let 
them not be encircled themselves in fashion and 
vanity. If they exhort them to order, truth, can- 
dor, and charity, let them prove their sincerity by 
their own actions. 

Many children, at an early age, are capable of 
feeling arguments, but several cannot. Parents 
and teachers should be always just and reasonable 
in what they require of them, and then never yield 
to any resistance or remonstrance whatever on the 
part of the child. A habit of submission is of the 
utmost consequence to the moral improvement of 
children. 

Children, however, as well as adults, like what 
is conformable to their natural dispositions. If 
their intellectual powers are very active, they may 
be allowed to follow their dictates, and to deter- 
mine even their own future situation in life. But. 
if parents wish to bring them up to pre fessions 
which they themselves prefer, and not according 
to the natura. gifts of the children, or if children 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 177 

are not disting-uished by their talents, they must 
be encouraged, by various means, and sometimes 
even forced, to exertion, and to make a choice of 
employment. Without this, many children would 
become careless and idle. It becomes necessary to 
impose tasks whenever the natural dispositions 
do not induce children to attain the knowledge re- 
quisite for their profession. It is always an error 
to allow idleness and free hours as a reward, be- 
cause such a proceeding implies that learning is a 
punishment. It is not very judicious, either.^ to 
conduct education, so that kings' birth-days and 
holydays are liked, because they exempt children 
from attending school. This is nearly as bad in 
principle, as compelling them to learn verses or 
write versions by way of punishment. Certainly 
a better mode of chastisement, if necessary, might 
be found. This kind of punishment is similar to 
that inflicted by some priests, who as a penance 
command a repetition of certain prayers. 

The question concerning emulation and its use- 
ful or dangerous influence is discussed among in- 
stitutors. Some prove its good, others blame its 
bad consequences. It is founded on a strong fun- 
damental feeling on the love of distinction or ap- 
probativeness, which may be used or abused. 
Those who have certain powers very strong are 
plea?ed with their gratification, they do not want 
any other motive. But emulation may become 
an excitement, of any feeling as well as 'ntellectual 



178 EDUCATION :f man. 

power It is a great stimulus for chi dren to learn 
their lessons, but as its influence is so great in so- 
ciety and the cause of numberless disorders, and 
as it is so much cultivated in. social relations, I 
find it advisable to omit it entirely in school edu 
cation. At all events no praise should be be- 
stowed except on talent and virtue. It certainly 
should be better if we could think that in doing 
all that which is to be done we do merely our 
duty. 

Selfishness and approbativeness act with the 
mosf different appearances, according to their com- 
binations with other faculties, and to external cir- 
cumstances. It is known, and I have already men- 
tioned, that their activity has been considered, by 
some philosophers, as sufficient to explain all the 
actions of men, and even as the source of superior 
talents. Indeed, whenever we omit any thing, in 
order to gain any earthly or heavenly enjoyment, 
selfishness is active ; and whenever we wish to be 
approved of, the love of approbation comes into 
play. The tendencies of these two powers are 
easily distinguished in children ; but I repeat, that 
their preponderance produces great mischief in 
society ; that they are too much cultivated in com- 
mon education, and that it is an error, the evil 
consequences of which are incalculable, to repre- 
sent them as the cliief aim of our existence, v/hile 
they ought to be only secondary motives. I have 
seen children eidowed with a great deal of pride 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 179 

and love of approbation, who became quite in- 
toxicated by being praised, and, certainly from 
this excitement, committed new faults, and some- 
times became intolerable for several days. 

Let us examine with some more details whether 
selfishness and the love of approbation produce 
talents; and whether the satisfaction of these two 
feelings should be the aim of all our actions ? Is 
it true, that arts and sciences originate and im- 
prove in proportion as they are patronized by 
pecuniary rewards and honor ? In Greece, the 
masterpieces of poetry, eloquence, history, and 
philosophy, were not the result of patronage. 
The successors of Alexander the Great encou- 
raged the learned, yet sciences lost their grandeur 
and originality. Only commentaries, compila- 
tions, and imitations, became numerous. In read- 
ing history, we meet with many great men v\^lio 
found their reward in the cultivation of the sciences 
and the arts themselves, and who were even per- 
secuted on their account. Many others have per- 
severed in contributing to the improvement of arts 
and sciences, only until they met with rewards 
and honors ; and it was fortunate if this did not 
happen too soon, as it appeared they worked only 
for them, and became idle when their aim' was 
attained. 

If individuals, because they possess some talents, 
are to receive the privilege of deciding on the 



180 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

value of every scientific production, the.T eleva* 
ion to distinction becomes a great obstacle to the 
progress of arts and sciences, because the learned 
Iheniselves are not free from selfish passions, and, 
like the vulgar, are ready to hinder others from 
attaining similar enjoyments and honors. Few 
are disposed to acknowledge the superiority of 
others- 

As the great maxim of a liberal" government is, 
Let them ad, so the true patronage consists in not 
preventing talents from exercising themselves, as 
long as absolute justice towards mankind is not in- 
jured ; in rewarding productions according to their 
influence on the general welfare, and in reward- 
ing only services actually performed. Among the 
abuses concerning rewards and distinctions, I men- 
tion only the fault to give to regular professors 
the exclusive right of teaching, and what is still 
worse, to permit them to delegate their duties to 
any substitute they may choose. Monopoly im- 
pedes improvement in every thing. If the ser- 
vices of a professor be useful to society in other 
avocations, and he cannot attend to his scientific 
pursuits, his professorship ought to be transferred 
to the person who, next to him, cultivates that 
branch with pleasure and success 

It is certain that reward and distinction do not 
produce talents, though they are of great weighv 
in exciting and directing the actions of all the 



E^CH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 181 

faculties, i even infer from history, that man- 
kind v.'ill suffer, and that all institutions will re- 
main imperfect, as long as selfishness and glory 
lire the aim of our actions; or, in other words, as 
long as places are looked for with a zeal in pro- 
portion to the profit they bring, and to the dis- 
(iuction they bestow on the possessor, whilst all 
our actions ought to tend to the common benefit 
and honor of mankind. Nothing but the place 
we occu])y in society, and fitness for its duties, 
should give distinction. It should be considered 
as every man's duty, to do all that he is capable of 
doing for the general happiness of those among 
whom he lives. Private interest, when exclusive- 
ly pursued, is the greatest enemy of morality. 
Whoever contends for it as the chief aim of our 
existence, acts after the imipulse of his animal na- 
ture ; — he is not a man. 

Selfishness, it is true, has greatly contributed to 
abolish various kinds of injustice, for every one is 
ready to resist his oppressor. In religious and 
civil legislation, privileges are more and more 
limited, and the rights of m.an become more equal 
than they were in ancient times. We no longer 
believe that all mankind is made for the sake of a 
{e\v. Indeed, as long as there is any thing to 
gain, there will be many who will contend for in- 
dependence, out of mere selfishness ; but the princi- 
ple from which they act, though hitherto auxiliary 

to the common good, cannot be applauded ; for it 
17 



182 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

would lead xhem to tyrannize in their turn, if tliey 
had the power. 

Mankind cannot become happy ^ if selfishness 
be not replaced, or at least mitigated, by a supe- 
rior motive of action. He who pursues his own 
advantage only, so far as he can do so without in- 
juring another, is just; he who gives up his su- 
perfluity rather than to do harm to another, is 
noble ; he who works only for the common wel- 
fare is the most noble, and no one, but him, de- 
serves that name. 

A great step towards perfection, would be the 
full and practical admission of the principle that 
every one has the right to employ his talents to 
the utmost for his own benefit, as far as he can do 
it without injuring others. This system of gov 
ernment is certainly far superior to that of exclu 
sive privileges of any kind : — Many battles, how 
ever, will be fought betwixt selfishness and bigotry 
on the one hand, and reason and sound morality 
on the other, before it is generally admitted and 
followed. 

It must be added, however, that the adoption 
even of this principle cannot be expected to obviate 
misery, nor luxur;f , with all its fatal consequences,, 
for this simple reason, that the natural endow- 
ments of individuals are very different, and that 
those who have more talents will govern the others 



EACH FACULTY TEiSDS TO ACTION. 18S 

m one way or another. While selfishness con 
tinnes to be the motive of their actions, the hiixhlv 
gifted will employ the weak to advance their own 
ends. The poor will be constantly dependent on 
the rich, and will serve them as the onlv ihiug, 
they can do to live. Supremacy v/ill, of neces- 
sity, fall on sing-le individuals. Nations also, 
through selfishness, interfere with each other, and 
war becomes unavoidable. The fortunate com- 
mander finds satellites whose advantage it is to 
serve him, as workmen serve the manufacturer ; 
he avails himself of their talents, and tells his 
countrymen that peace, and obedience to his will, 
are essential to their happiness. Is not this the 
state of Man as far as history informs ns ? And 
this must continue to be his state, wherever per- 
sonal welfare is the only rule of conduct. Tyran- 
ny causes revolutions ; revolutions, again, are pro- 
ductive of tyranny ; and all this has its origin in 
selfishness. There is no possibility of changing 
this permanent circle of events in mankind, ex 
cept by subordinating private interest to common 
advantage. 

This doctrine is not new, it is the basis of Chris- 
tianity ; but it has been dreadfully abused at dif 
ferent times, even by pretended teachers of mo- 
rality. It is no where practised in its full vigor, 
and happy is the nation whose governors foilow it 
even in a limited degree. But it ought at least to 
be generally propagated, and its good effects shown 
to every one who is capable of appreciating them. 



184 EDUCAl ON OF MAN. 

The difTerence of motives does not only exist 
in chilaren, but also in adults., and whoever wishes 
to determine different individuals to the same con- 
duct, must appeal to different faculties of the mind 
He must follow the example of the great apostle, 
who became all things to all men, in order to save 
them. Whoever has only one motive of salvation 
to propose, will never keep all mankind together, 
and whoever wishes to move strongly must appeal 
to the feelings. Experience however shows that 
few persons can be guided by the superior feelings 
alone, and that reasoning is seldoir of any great 
weight as a motive of conduct ; it is also obvious, 
on the other hand, that the greater number of per- 
sons are actuated by inferior motives, and even by 
commandment and by fear. Yet I would recom 
mend, that the propriety of making use of all pos- 
sible inducements to produce virtuous conduct 
should be kept constantly in view, and that every 
motive should be employed, beginning with the 
most noble and elevated with morality and reason, 
and ending with the lowest, with fear and iuipres- 
sions on the sense of feeling, and the sensations 
of hunger and thirst. We may reason with those 
who understand the laws of the Creator, and feel 
their importance, whilst others, who cannot com- 
prehend these laws or perceive their utilit}^, should 
be restrained by inferior and selfish motives, ever 
by disagreeable impressions on their senses, or by 
feeling the pains of hunger, or solitary confine- 
ment The lalter means wi. be rarely necessary, 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENTS. 185 



but a SO, should not be neff.ected. The flosririnor 
system however, will be abandoned in pioportion 
as hiitnan nature becomes understood, and eduo-a> 
tion conouctcd accordingly. 



CHAPTER IV. 

EVERY ONE HA? HIS NATURAL GIFTS. 

The reader, somewhat versed in Phrenology, 
will easily perceive, that the different considera- 
tions of this work are in the most intimate Conner 
tion with, and even founded on, ideas developed 
in other publications to which I have frequently 
referred. In this Chapter I take it for granted, 
that all mental dispositions or powers, are innate, 
and I speak of them in so far only, as regards the 
direction of their actions. 

In respect to feelings as well as intellect, man- 
kind may be ranged in different classes. Theie 
are persons who may be called fortunate, if not 
elect, namely, those who, from the felicity of tlieir 
natural constitution, desire only what is good, 
who act from love, and show pure morality in all 
their actions. In these happy beings, the superior 
feelings predominate much over those common to 

man and animals. 
17* 



186 EDUCATION OF MAW. 

The rest of mankind, by far the greater num- 
ber, are ol liged to combat against the activity of 
the inferior feeHngs, and stand in need of the law 
to direct and restrain them. Three subdivisions 
of this latter class may be considered. The 
first embraces those who have one or several of 
ihe inferior as well as one or several of the supe- 
rior feelings very active. These persons may be 
great in vice or virtue, according as they follow 
the dictates of their inferior or superior faculties. 

In the second order, may be reckoned those in 
whom certain inferior faculties are very active, 
and all the superior very weak. Such individu- 
als are exposed to the danger of being overwhelm- 
ed by vice, in proportion to the weakness of the 
superior motives. This disproportion is common 
in great criminals. 

In the third class are placed by far the greater 
number of mankind, namely, those individuals in 
whom all the faculties are middling ; those who 
act according to education and external circum- 
stances, and follow, without examination, the 
moral and religious principles which they are 
taught. Some philosophers, founding on them 
as instances, have been led to maintain, that man 
does every thing by imitation. Though that 
opinion be erroneous, the influence of imitation, 
remains very great and we may say with Mr. 
Combe. (Essays on Phrenology, p. 322.) "As a 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 181 

j^eneral rule, whatever you wish your child to be 
or do. be that or do that to him. If you wish 
him to be outrageous, to be cruel, to be quarrel- 
some, be outrageous, cruel, and quarrelsome to 
him. If you wish him to be humane and polite, 
•be humane and polite to him. If you wish him to 
be just and pious, be just and devout before him." 
The great mass of mankind, indeed, cannot be 
left to their own guidance ; common people, when 
tempted, easily yield ; education, therefore, in all 
its details, legislation, and all public institutions, 
ought to contribute to accustom them to regularity 
and order. But, at the same time, the rulers 
of mankind must not expect the lower minds to 
be obedient whilst they forget their own duty. 
Power is given, not for the selfish gratification 
of those who are invested with authority, but to 
promote the general happiness of the commu- 
nity. 

With respect to undei standing, it is also certam 
that few are endowed with a mind so compre- 
hensive, as to enable them to learn whatever they 
please, and to embrace the principles of universal 
knowledge. Some are given rather to deep re- 
flection than to great learning ; others have less 
reflection, but nuich talent for acquiring erudi- 
tion ; and, in the lust place, the greater nuinbtM- 
do not excel in any department of knowledge, 
of art, or of science whritever ; but may learn any 



188 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

thing that is necessary to qualify them to become 
isefiil members of society. 

The preceding facts being ascertained by ob- 
servation, we may examine the question, Whether 
the same kind of education will equally suit every * 
individual. 

The aim in educating all must be the same, 
namely, to render them virtuous and intelligent 
but as the natural endowment of individuals is 
different, all persons are not capable of the same 
improvement, and everyone cannot be induced by 
the same motives to pursue the same end. 

The faculties proper to man, being the aim ol 
all oiu' actions, should be cultivated in every per- 
son as much as possible, but the natural differ- 
ence will be observed with respect to the energy 
of these, as well as of the other faculties in differ- 
ent individuals. Nature, by her endowment, con- 
stitutes some characters moral, and others reli- 
gious. The latter will act more from faith, the 
former from duty. Yet, the law, ''Love thy neigh- 
bor as thyself," must be constantly held up to 
both, as the object of their exertions, and obedi- 
ence to it required, even of those who do not feel 
inclined to do so. 

If the superior motives be not sufficiently strong 
to produce this obedience, the lower faculties 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAi. ENDOWMENT. 189 

must be employed. The influence of the latter 
powers, then, is double ; they constitute motives 
themselves, and they also assist the superior feel 
ings to arrive at their gratification. Among the 
lower motives, selfishness and fear are the mo^'f 
generally energetic, and no legislation can exclude 
the use of them. 

Thus, a true system of education cannot be 
founded on single views, or established according 
to single individuals ; it must be adapted to hu- 
man jiature. I have already mentioned tliat 
whoever will direct man, ought not to hold out 
only one motive of action. He who endeavors to 
change every person into a philosopher, and he 
who will never reason with any one is equally 
mistaken. A preacher who invites others to be- 
come morally good, will err when he trusts entirely 
to the motives which govern his own actions, not 
beinir aware that sometimes such motives make 
no impression on others. He ought to bring for- 
ward all possible reasons to touch all his auditors, 
and make them feel those motives which they are 
susceptible of. He ought to be particularly care- 
ful to be understood, and to speak by examples. 
Moreover, his precepts must be confirmed by his 
own actions. He who teaches order and cleanli- 
ness, must be orderly and cleanly himself ; he who 
preaches peace and charity, must not deny these 
principles by his moral conduct. Those who 
say, Folbw my words, but not my actions, are 



190 . EDUCATIOJN OF MAN 

unfit for their situation, and ought to be replaced 
by more worthy subjects. 

It follows, that the feelings, as well as and even 
still more than the hitellectual faculties, ought to 
be considered before children are destined to cer- 
tain professions, or adults to certain places. To 
bring up a child endowed with great animal pro- 
pensities, such as Amativeness, Combativeness, 
Acquisitiveness, Self-esteem, &c. to the church, 
whatever his intellect may be, is the height of 
error and absurdity. Nothing has done greater 
harm to society-, than placing individuals in pro- 
fessions and situations for which they were unfit, 
not only through the want of some necessary facul- 
ties, but also through the inordinate activity of 
some of the opposite ones. Strong amativeness or 
cruelty produces nuschief in a Roman Catholic 
priest, as does the love of domination in the repre- 
sentative of a free nation, corruptibility in a judge, 
fear in a general, &c. The feelings, also, ought 
to be exercised with a view to the future destina- 
tion of children. Combativenes is to the soldier 
what reverence is to the clergyman ; but, in both, 
benevolence and conscientiousness should be active. 

his also impossible to insist too much on the 
tJtjportance of considering the effect of tlie natural 
fee.ings, in the choice of persons to rule or to lead 
society. This highly interesting point can be per- 
ceived, ii all its magnitude, '.ly those only who 



DIFFERENCE OF NA'^URAL ENDOWMENT. 191 

are convinced, that the faculties which produce 
feelings, are natural gifts differing ii. every indi- 
vidual ; that they are independent of intellect, 
and arc the principal cause of our actions. In this 
way, fishermen, who are eniinent/y gifted in 
natural sentiments, may be better moralists than 
high priests, mathematicians, orators, or philoso- 
phers, who excel only in intellect, and whose moral 
sentiments are weak compared with their inferior 
propensities. 

An opposite error, but not less hurtful to society 
than the preceding, is committed by those who 
despise and neglect the cultivation of the intel- 
lectual faculties. Some religious persons of this 
kind, have endeavored to put aside alt temporal 
concerns, and have become hermits. Others avoid 
all pleasure, or even torture their body, in order 
to be agreeable to their Creator. Others repre- 
sent a knowledge of the Bible, as a substitute for 
all other information, in the same way as the Ma- 
hometan confines his knowledge to the Koran. 
Our iarnorance of human nature is the cause of 
such uiistakes. The faculties which produce feel- 
ings, constitute only one part of our nature ; the 
other part is intellectual, and the feelings work in 
darkness it not (,nlisfhtened bv the understanding. 

Intellectual education too, is frequently miscon- 
ducted from ignorance of human nature. The 
basis, howevei', of the direction of intellect is the 



192 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

same as that of feelings. A plurality of intel 
lectual powers exists, and they are possessed in 
different degrees of strength I'y aifTerent indi- 
viduals. The reflective faculties are essential to 
our moral conduct in every situation ; and are 
necessary to form clear conceptions in all intel 
lectual operations, while the perceptive faculties 
are applicable only to certain kinds of employ- 
ment. The reflective powers then should be ex- 
ercised in every individual. 

I have already repeated, that all our learning 
ought to be useful, and that we should obtain pos- 
itive notions instead of mere signs, which convey 
no meaning. Indeed no one has excelled, nor 
will excel, as a deep thinker, as a great minister 
general, lawyer, physician, or moralist, merely 
because he is a good classical scholar. Great men 
are no doubt frequently SAJiled in the claj^sics ; 
and it would certainly be astonishing', if their 
natural capacities, whicli enabled them to become 
great, should prevent them from becoming good 
Latin scholars, since we see that they are obliged 
to spend more time and laboi' in learning Latin 
than in any other pursuit. But it should never 
be forgotten, that the talent for learning artificial 
signs is a primitive one, and that it may or iii:iy 
not be combined in any individual v/ith a gre.it 
endowment of other intellectual powers, and heuLC 
that it is wrong to consider it as the standard ol 
understanding in general. It is high time, says 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURA.L ENDOWMENT. 193 

Dr. Rush, (Essays Literary, Moral, and Philo- 
sophical. Pfiil. 1803,) to disting-uish between a 
philosopher and a scholar, between things aiid 
words. We may be g-cod scholars, and know 
nothing of man and things. A mere scholar can 
call a horse or a cow by different names, but he 
fre(]uently knows nothing of the qualities and 
uses of these valuable animals. "A boy of eight 
years old, with the Latin grammar in his hand, 
asked his father who made the Latin language, 
and for what it was made ? Another boy, oi 
eleven years of age, wished he had ncit been born, 
because of the trouble which he found in learninof 
Latin." It is certain, as Dr. Rush also says, that 
many sprightly boys, of excellent capacities for 
useful knowledge, have been so disgusted with 
the dead languages, as to retreat from the drudg- 
ery of schools to low company, whereby they have 
become bad members of society. 

The exclusive study of the ancient language? 

has retarded the progress of the arts and sciences 

Whoever takes an interest in their improvement 

must declare against it. Philology ought to be 

considered as a particular branch of instruction, in 

the same way as Chemistry, Botany, &c. Usefi 1 

and practical knowledge ought to be the principal 

object of intellectual education. During the time 

we spend in learning the words in which Virgil 

deliv^ers the erroneous opinion, that bees originate 

from putrefaction, we might learn, with greate*" 
18 



194 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

advantage, the natural history, treatment, and use- 
fulness of this insect itself. In countries where 
vines are planted, it is more useful to teach chil 
dren how to cultivate them, and how to make 
wine, than the expression which Horace employs 
to inform us, that he liked a good glass of wine. 
Instead of learning Mythology in Latin and Greek, 
we had better make ourselves acquainted with the 
history of the different religious creeds, and of 
true Christianity by reading in our mother-tongue. 
Of what use is it to us to know what words the 
Greeks used when they spoke, since we never con- 
verse in Greek ^ 

Intellectual education may be divided into Gen- 
eral and Professional ; and in both respects the 
pupils may be subdivided into several classes, not 
according to age and time, but according to the 
objects to be taught, and those to be learnt ; for, 
in point of fact, son:e children learn double what 
others do in a given time, and succeed better in 
one branch than in another. They should remain 
in each class as long as, and no longer than, is 
necessary to acquire sufficient knowledge of the 
branch there taught. There should be one pro- 
fessor for each branch, and each class should be 
conducted according to the plan of mutual in- 
struction. 

I have already laid it down as a fundamental 
rale, that no sign should be employed without its 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 195 

meaning is explained, and that children should be 
constantly admonished, that they use artificial 
sig-ns as means of" communication or recollection, 
aiKl that sensations, feeling's, notions, and reflec- 
tions, precede, and cnn be acquired only by, the 
activity of the faculties themselves. 

1 reckon the knowledg'e of as many objects and 
beings as possible, viz. of the three kingdoms of 
natural history, of their physical and chemical 
qualities, of the vital phenomena, of history, geo- 
graphy, geology, and cosmography, of anthropo- 
logy, the mother tongue, printed and writter 
signs, calculation, and, finally, moral and religious 
principles, to be essential to^a general intellectual 
education. 

Elementary ideas, or outlines of these objects, 
are sufficient for children ; but during the college 
education, these branches are to be extended and 
detailed, but always taught by the way of mutual 
instruction. * 

It is a common complaint that arts and sciences 
do not improve as much as might be wished for. 
This proves at least that education does not pro- 
duce talents ; but I think, on the other hand, that 
Nature has given many capacities which education 
suppresses. If, for instance, a boy who has little 
talent for learning Latin, but great inclination to 
draw, will, whenever the master turns his eyes 



196 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

away, exercise his natural bias, he will, when per- 
ceived, at least be scolded. The consequence will 
be, that at the end he will know but very little 
Latin, while his innate talent of drawing has been 
prevented from being" exercised. In this way 
many children are punished for cultivating their 
natural gifts, and their intellectual education is 
impeded. How different would every one be, 
were he brought up according to his natural en- 
dowments. It is really the greatest misfortune 
for mankind to educate children and youth in an 
indiscriminate manner ; and we may say, that in 
consequence of absurd views in the selection ot 
the objects taught, and in the manner of teaching, 
learning has hitherto been tiresome, unprofitable, 
and even disgusting in no ordinary degree. 

The mistakes committed are particularly great 
in professional education. It is a lamentable truth, 
that i^ew persons stand in the situations for which 
nature particularly fitted them. This soldier 
ought to have been a clergyman ; that clergyman 
a soldier ; and here we see a shoemaker who was 
intended for a poet ; and there an advocate who 
was designed for a shoemaker. The first indica 
tion of improvement in this respect will appear, 
when human nature shall be better understood ; 
it will be known that there are natural gifts, tha 
these gifts are different ; that precepts and rules 
neither bring forth talents nor moral conduct ; that 
none should be promoted to the degree of a lead 



%^-: 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 197 

ing man, who is not fit for the station, and that 
he who is fit for one pUxce, is not on tlmt account 
necessarily fit for all others. It is a great evil if 
education be very expensive, so tliat merely rich 
persons can receive it. Their children are not al- 
ways the most talented, whilst the geniuses among 
the poorer classes are exchided. In this respect 
the Roman hierarchy serves as a model. It was 
conceived in a true republican spirit, and no t^vil 
government has hitherto sliown a succession of tal- 
ents at the head of aflairs, to be compared with the 
church of Rome. 

There is another example on record, which 
proves the importance of chcjosing the talents 
among all classes, and employing every one ac- 
cordiuiT to his talents. The sociclv ol" the .Jesuits 
rose in a short time to an extraordinary height 
and iulluence. Several causes coiitrihuted to this 
result ; but the principal one certijinly was, that 
they were employed in ccjnducting education, dis- 
tinguished the genius of their pujiils, chose for 
their order oidy those who excel 1-ed in talents, and 
employed each individual according to liis natural 
dispositions. No society will acquire an equal in- 
(luence that expects to do so from teaching alone. 

Moreover, their regulations were calculated to 
contribute V their excellence. They were under 
a leading general, who nominated without con- 
trol all functionaries of the order, and could re- 
18^ 



193 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

move them at pleasure. To him the reports o^' 
the subordinate societies were submitted. These 
reports were minute and circumstantial in the 
highest degree, containing- exact inform.ation of 
the characters of the novices, and professed mem- 
bers, their talents, dispositions, and prevailiDg" 
tendencies, and, above all, their knowledge of hu- 
man nature, and experience in affairs. Thus, the 
general could appoint to each man his station and 
his reward, could elevate and degrade, exclude 
and retain, and allot the chief duties to the highest 
abilities. 

1 am far from defending the church of Rome 
and the society of Jesuits in all their tendencies. 
I argue only in favor of their sagacity j in furnish- 
ing means of education to the better heads of all 
classes, and in employing every member according 
to his abilities. 

If every one were employed according to his 
natural gifts, a double advantage would re- 
sult : arts and sciences would be cultivated with 
more success, and many persons would be better 
pleased with their station in life. It is certain, 
that it is not always the profession to which we 
are forced by circumstances, that makes us happy. 
Many would be satisfied with a smaller income, 
if they were allowed to follow their natural bias. 
Even people of independent fortune are still de- 
pendent on the general arrangement of education 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWxMENT. 199 

They know perfectly well that one or another of 
their sons will never excel as classical scholars, 
but they must submit to custom, and prejudice ; 
the boys must be drilled for years, though they 
will soon forget that which they learned by com- 
p ilsion. This is school-wisdom ! 

The second error of professional education is, 
that we are plagued with a great deal of useless 
knowledge, while the most important objects are 
overlooked. Of what use is mathematics to a 
clergyman, while his attention is scarcely called 
to human nature, and to the organic conditions on 
which the manifestations of the mind depend ? 
None of the unprofitable studies ought to be com- 
pulsory. Yet as every kind of knowledge is use- 
Ail, no branch of it should be neglected, and 
therefore Latin and Greek might with propri- 
ety, continue to be taug;Jit, if we make it requi- 
site^ for those only to learn them who have the 
inclination to do so, or whose professions require 
such knowledge. No one can learn every thing, 
and it is wrong to oblige pupils to learn that 
which is useless in their practical situation in 
life. 

The third error of professional as well as of 
general education, consists in the method of teach- 
ing. It has been examined in the preceding pages, 
and I mi.mtion it once more for the sake of connec- 
tion. Children learn languages without ideas, 



200 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

and natural history by mere desciiptions ; and 
those who teach them in this manner, if they think 
at all about the matter, must proceed on the belief 
that every word communicated necessarily excites, 
in the mind of the pupil, the idea which they 
mean it to convey. This, however, is an extrava- 
gant error ; for words can excite only ideas already 
acquired, and if no previous ideas have been form- 
ed, they are mere unmeaning sounds. The same 
error is committed in professional education. In 
the study of medicine, for instance, we are fre- 
quently told a great deal about various diseases ; 
of external appearances ; of different conditions of 
the pulse or skin, &c. before we observe such 
things in nature. The result is, that the time and 
labor we spend in acquiring such theoretical know- 
ledge are, in a great measure, lost. Let us first 
see Nature, and then hear descriptions. A medical 
student, who has never seen a patient, but studied 
the theory of diseases, will be as little acquainted 
with them as with minerals of which he has only 
read the descriptions, though he might excel :n 
his theoretical examinations. 

Thus, in the study of medicine, it is not only 
wrong to compel the students, as is the case at cer- 
tain uj\iversities, to learn the auxiliary sciences in 
detail, such as mineralogy, botany, zoology and 
chemistry, since a perfect and practical know- 
ledge of each of these branches would require sev- 
eral years ; but it is also a great error to begin 
with theoretical lectures. 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 201 

Moreover, the individual brandies of medical 
education are too much separated. The instruc- 
tion begins commonly with anatomy, without the 
pupi'. being taught to think of the use of any pai- 
ticular part. At certain universities, they spend 
the greater part of the time in studying osteology 
and myology, (the knowledge of the bones and 
muscles ;) they must learn the name of each bony 
ridge and edge ; but may hurry over, with very 
superficial notions of the viscera and nerves, which 
certainly are more important to medical practi- 
tioners in general, than those of the bones ; whilst 
operative surgeons alone stand in need of a very 
exact knowledge of the bones and blood-vessels. 

Physiology and anatomy ought never to be 
separated from each other : the structure will be 
learned with more ease and pleasure, when at the 
same time its uses are taught On the other hand, 
students ought to begin with t'he more necessary 
functions, and go on to those of less importance. 
When well acquainted with anatomy and physiol- 
ogy, they ought to see patients, and the different 
morbid symptoms ; they should learn to distin- 
guish diseases, to become attentive to modifica- 
tions according to age, temperament, climate, 
season, and manner of living, and to learn the 
mode of treatment. Being instructed in this prac- 
tical way, they will feel an interest in studying 
the Materia Medica.^ or the substances used out ol 
the three kingdoms of nature, and also the chem 



202 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ical preparations and doses. This sti dy will not 
require great extension, if we attend more to the 
art of heaUng" than to the display of knowledge. 
The most skilful practitioners use a small num- 
ber of drugs in curing their patients, and they use 
still less for themselves, being indisposed. 

When human nature shall be better understood, 
and the primitive faculties of the mind, and the 
conditions of their m.anifestations more perfectly 
known, professional education will be better 
"^egulated, and we shall then no longer be obliged 
to learn merely for the school, or, as we com- 
monly say, for the examinations. We shall then 
acquire only practical knowledge, and no one will 
find it necessary to begin his own plan of useful 
learning when he has finished his studies at the 
university. Indeed, nothing can be mere tedious 
for students, than to attend ex officio lectures of 
mere theoretical schoolmen. 

Here the qualifications of teachers might be con- 
sidered with propriety ; they are certainly of great 
importance, biit it is not my intention to speak ot 
them. Pupils are well aware, that great abuses 
are committed in this respect ; that it is not 
always the most worthy who fills the cha/r. 1 
merely notice, that there is a difference betwe ?,n 
the possessing of knowledge and the capacity of 
eommunicatinj3c it to others, and that some persons 
of more knowledge are sometimes less skilful in 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 203 

teaching, than others of less information, in the 
same way as the best students of theoretical 
knowledge have not always the most practical skilL 

The common method of teaching arts is not bet- 
ter than that of cultivating sciences. Let us sup- 
pose, for the sake of example, that those only who 
have natural talents apply themselves to drawing, 
painting, and the arts of imitation, — but we may 
ask, how are they generally taught ? They are 
too frequently confined to copying the antiques 
as the only models of beauty and perfection, instead 
of representing and imitating nature. In this way 
artists will be only copyists, and never can acquire 
any claim to originality. On the other hand, the 
ancients had no exclusive privilege of genius, nor 
did they necessarily exhaust all the sources of ex- 
cellence, so as to leave to posterity no resource but 
to copy them. On the contrary, there are many 
antiques that have no merit but their age. The 
only criterion, then, of greater or less perfection 
in works of art, is their resemblance to nature. 
Now. if the ancients have broucrht forth master- 
pieces in imitating nature, why should not modern 
artists do the same, since nature, though infinite 
in her modifications, is constant in her laws ? Let 
us imitate the method of the ancient artists, but 
not copy their productions. They represented 
nature, and imitated her varieties ; they gave to . 
each strong hero, strong muscles, yet different in 
proportion and size, jist as we find in nature 



204 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

why should our ai'tists copy only the statue o\ 
Hrrcules, in crder to indicate bodily strength r 
Why should they in general confine themselves 
only to one and the same configuration and atti- 
tude for particular personages ? All musicians 
might be equally, and, with the same right, re- 
quested to follow only the productions of one or 
several great composers ; and all music which is 
not like that of Handel, Mozart or Haydn, be 
declared to be good for nothing. 

Even on the supposition that education, in all 
its details, is well understood, and its principles 
practised, still there will be but a few individuals, 
who will unite all the faculties necessary to such 
or such a situation. The individual painters will 
be rare, who possess in a high degree the faculties 
of Constructiveness, Configuration, Size, Color- 
ing, Imitation, Individuality, Comparison, and 
Causality. The same difficulty of uniting the 
necessary fundamental faculties together prevails 
in all arts, sciences and professions. In every one 
there are and will be individuals endowed with 
one or several of the necessary gifts ; but it sel- 
dom happens that all the faculties are united in an 
eminent degree in one person. The combination 
of the primitive powers are innumerable, and 
form the proper subject of a particular treatise on 
talents and characters. 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 205 

Tlie reader will keep in mind, that in this vol- 
ume, I intend merely to expose the fundamental 
principles according to which education is to be 
regulated, and the human race perfected. The 
peculiar apphcations are without end. The two 
following chapters, however, one on the education 
of both sexes, and the other on that of nations, 
seem to me particularly interesting. Yet there 
too the general principles remain the same, but 
their application is to be modified, and adapted 
to the peculiarities of sexes and nations. 



CHAPTER V. 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 

The question, whether both sexes are to be ed- 
ucated differently, or in the same manner, and 
jilaced in different or in the same situations in 
practical life, has been, and is still differently an- 
swered. Women call men usurpers and tyrants ; 
and they, on the contrary, boast of natural and 
positive rights of superiority. I shall consider, 
in the first place, in a general way, the condition 
of women as it was, and as it is, and then ex- 
amine what natural claims they have to equality. 
Their education is t(t be regulated according to 

the determination of the latter point. 
19 



206 EDUCATION' OF MAN. 

The condition of women is very ^use^ab^.<^ 
among" barbarous nations ; they are slaves. Wher- 
ever bodily strength and animal feelings predom- 
inate, they are sadly off. They are purchased 
and divorce is permitted. The Jews were privi 
leged to divorce their wives. (Duet, xxiv.) 

Among civilized nations, as long as the code of 
morality is dictated by the lovv^er feelings, females 
are looked on as means of gratifying the selfish 
passions of men. The ancient Greeks and the 
European nations, during the dark ages, treated 
them with every indignity. Polygamy is inti- 
mately connected with the custom of purchasing 
wives. It prevailed originally every where, and 
exists still in many countries. In China, the 
wives are sold at marriages, and not permitted to 
make any choice of their own. By polygamy, 
however, some men usurp the right of others, i 
custom which is contrary to nature, since more 
boys are born than girls ; or are we authorized to 
admit that the contrary happens in Asia .^ The 
pure spirit of Christianity abolished this odious 
practice, and re-established the primitive law of 
the Creator 

The female sex has risen by a slow progress to 
nigher and higher degrees of estimation in Europe. 
Females are respected wherever moral feelings 
are esteemed. Where this is the case, they are 
valued as riends ; but still they are either con 



■«» 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. '4f^07 

' " "-■''■•^ 

sidered as wenk and delicate creatures, and as- ^ 
?:isted, since it is thon^rht a duty to couipassionate '^ 
and to succor the feeble, or they are treatejil as 
si!U[)le and useful housewives. 

Vvhere a taste for beautiful forms and elegance 
of manners prevails, the females -are considered 
as ag-reeable companions, and often become mis- 
tresses. 

Women are best treated, when polite manners 
and moral feeling's are cultivated. Then they 
liv6 with men under the decent form of matrimo- 
ny. Their gentle and insinuating manners are 
highly appreciated, and they are considered as in- 
timate and faithful friends. 

Yet there is no society where the two sexes 
stand altogether in an equal situation. Is this dif- 
ference f()unded on nature, or the result of the 
selfishness of men "^ Women speak of vindicating 
their natural rights ; they call it tyranny to deny 
them a share in civil and political affairs, to orce 
them to remain immured in their families, &.c. 
Mary Wolstoncroft has taken great painis to 
show, that both sexes are by nature equal. She 
was obliged to admit the actual inferiority of her 
sex ; but still she endeavored to prove, that 
women are degraded only by want of education, 
and by external circumstances ; and that men, 
through jealousy, p- rposely neglect the cultivation 




208 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

of girls. Male writcfs, on tlic contra 'y, maintain, 
tliat nature has made the two sexes diflerent, 
tliong-li concordant, so as to produce together a 
delicious harmony ; that she has prepared tliem 
for their future destinations, hy a particular mod 
ification of feelings and intellectual faculties given 
to each, and avoided rivalship between them, by 
giving them diflerent dispositions. 

It is to be understood, that I do not speak of 
single individuals. There are women who re- 
semble men, and vice versa. Mary Wolston- 
CROFT speaks of her own manner of feeling and 
thinking, which resembled that of a man. She 
contends particularly for the power of generaliz- 
ing ideas, of drawing comprehensive conclusions 
from individual observations, a power which- 
seems to her the only requisite of an immortal 
being ; a power which is commonly denied to 
women, and often considered as inconsistent with 
the female character. I allow that this power 
exists in some women stroiiger than in many men ; 
but Mary Wolstoncroft would accuse herself, 
and speak against her sex, if she would draw gen- 
eral inferences from her own individual feelings. 
As I am of the decided opinion, thhit the two sexes, 
in the actual state of things, are naturally differ- 
ent in their dispositions, I shall contrast them in 
a summary view. They possess essentially the 
same powers d." mind, the whole diflereiice coneists 
in the degrees in which they have thci»"». 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 209 

The form of the female body, is rounded, and 
mdicates rather delicacy and beauty than strength 
and solidity. '' Let us be allowed," says Mary 
WoLSTONCROFT, " to take the same exercise as 
boys, not only during infancy, but also during 
youth, and we shall arrive at the same perfection 
of body." I admit, that in girls, confir-ed to 
close rooms, and prohibited from taking sufF.cieat 
exercise, the muscles are relaxed, and the diges- 
tive powers destroyed. It would certainly be ad- 
visable to take the grejitest care, of the bodhy 
constitution, and to adopt a manner of living 
which would secure females against bodily defor- 
mities, and the immense train of nervous com- 
plaints that nfiiict them under the present system. 
1 pity the female sex for their physical education 
being so utterly neglected, and for their mental im- 
provement being thoroughly mismanaged ; yet 1 
am also fully convinced, that although the same 
physical education were given to the muscular 
system of both sexes, each would preserve its e- 
culiarities, because the functions, those at least 
which characterize the sex, are different in e:u''-. 
Country people of Europe furnish a certain proof 
of the truth of this assertion ; boys and girls are 
brouq-ht up in the same way, but it is superfluous 
to sny which sex is the strongest, and whicli lias 
recourse to the other when muscular strength is 
required. Women are exposed to many little dis- 
orders unknr wn to the male sex. Farther, in ful- 
filling their duty as mothers, they are exposed to 
19^ 



210 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

great sufferings, and causes of weakness. ^lan 
kind is treated in this, as in many other respects, 
like all viviparous animals. Though the manner 
of living be the same in both sexes, the females 
are smaller and weaker than the males. 

Some of the feelings necessary to the preserva- 
tion of the species are stronger in men, and others 
of them stronger in women. In animals, the male 
pursues, the female yields, and so it is in mankind. 
Among all nations men court, and women are 
courted. As to the love of offspring, the two 
sexes show a decided difference. Female children 
delight to dress and undress a baby, to take every 
possible care of a doll, to get an infant in their 
arms, to carry it, to sing and to walk about, stag- 
gering under the weight. Boys seldom think of 
such a pastime. They have more inclination to 
noisy amusements, to run about, to ride upon a 
stick by way of a horse ; they delight in a top, a 
ball, a drum, &c. Since the suckling mother 
must stay with the child, and provide for its 
wants, nature has taken care that she should be 
pleased with doing so. Indeed many mothers 
have this feeling too strong, they cannot manage 
their children properly ; they spoil them, become 
unjust towards other persons on their account, 
and sacrifice truth and every thing for their sake. 
This is seldom the case with fathers ; they are 
commonly obliged to inflict the deserved punish- 
ments, ard to be the judges in all disputes. 



EDUCATION OF THE SB. k'ES. 211 

Mary Wolstoncroft denies that women from 
oirth independently of education, have a fond- 
ness for dolls. She quotes her own feelings, and 
ventures to affirm, that the doll will never excite 
I he attention of a girl, unless confinement allows 
her no alternative. " Girls and boys," says she, 
" would play harmlessly together, if the distinc- 
tion of sex were not inculcated long before nature 
makes any difference." Mary Wolstoncroft is 
very wrong to take herself as the standard of her 
sex, while general observation shows, that through- 
out nature the love of offspring is stronger in fe- 
males than in males. 

Another feeling more energetic in women than 
in men, is Attachment. Tliis feeling is not the 
result of their weak state, but is given by nature. 
Many women have sacrificed to it their happiness 
and welfare. Females commonly wish to possess, 
exclusively, the friendship of others, and often 
complain of the want of friendship in men, since 
they are not so exclusively governed by it. The 
circumstance of this feeling being so energetic and 
prevailing in women, is an additional motive why 
•reduction should be niore severely punished. 1 
fear that many legislators v/ink at this crime, from 
the circumstance of their not beinsr tl emselves sc 
proi7e to strong attachments as women. 

There are still some other feelings more active 
in women than in men, Avhich essent ally enter 



212 . EDUCATION OF MAN 

into the formation of the female character. It iS; 
however, difficult to say whether they contribute 
to their happiness, since it often happens, that, 
if they be not satisfied, they become sources of 
unhappmess to them. I allude to Idealty and 
Approbativeness. 

One of the nic st prevailing* sentiments of females: 
is the Love ct Approbation. They show it fron 
their carlie-Gt infancy in dressing, v^alking-, speak 
ing", &c. &c. They are constantly desirous ol 
knowing what others say of them ; they are font 
of distinctions of e\ery kind, of decorations am 
external show. Young' g'li^s, who are scarce!,^ 
capable of understanding ^ivh^.^. ii\ said of them 
may be governed by talkliij \o vl:om of v/hat 
other people think of then- be;^.lviol^^ This 
motive Jias not the same tiTovvC uith boys. 
Many females are intoxicated by t^t kvc of ap- 
probation, they cannot distinguish tiuo \\K\\t' from 
false flattery, nay, they would be plcasi\\ vnth 
adoration. They try to make impressiow^. on 
others by various means. Some would suffci \vh 
in order to be pitied, rather than remain a\\\^- 
ticed. 

No man will object indiscriminately against (h' 
feeling which causes a desire of pleasing ; it is thN 
source of many pleasures in society ; but its tot 
great activity, combined with some other sent! 
ments, and not directed by reflection, makes man} 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 215 

women weak and fastidious, or mere objects of 
amusement, by their pretty nothings and mfantine 
airs. It is still worse, if such fine ladies be full of 
capricious fancies. Females who are governed 
'jnly by this feeling, will remain alluring objects 
for a moment, but they will not obtain a durable 
interest in the aftections of a sensible man. It fol- 
lows, that the sentiment of the love of approba- 
tion being in general too strong in women, does not 
stand in need of being exercised ; it is, indeed, 
their greatest enemy. Farther, they delight fre- 
quently in a world of fiction and eccentricity. 
The softer feelings and the religious sentiments 
are conmionly stronger in women than in men. 
Females therefore become easily the favorite tools 
of priesthood. 

Females naturally haveless courage and destruc- 
tivenessthan men, and more Cautiousness. Fear, 
therefore, ought not to be cherished in them ; but 
it ought to be treated as cowardice. To fear a 
cat, a mouse, an insect, a little noise, &c. is irra- 
tional, looks infantine, and indicates altogether n 
false susceptibility of mind, or a too great nervous 
irritability. The ardor with which some femah^s 
amuse themselves in hunting, shooting., and 
gaming, appears, on the other hand, eqiially ol)- 
jectionable. In short, while coarseness in felnale^^ 
is to be avoided ; delicac/ and refinement of taste 
must not be confou ided with weakness. 



214 EDI CATION OF .MAN. 

The conduct of females in general is unstable ; 
their opinions are often wavering ; they think too 
ramch of incidental occurrences ; of actual even>ts ; 
they wish to enjoy immediately ; are moved by 
momentary 'impressions ; do not like to work for 
a future period ; while men have more frequently 
the end in view. Females undertake many things : 
they are warm by fits and starts, but their warmth 
is soon exhausted. 

Indeed, hitherto the greatest enemies of the fe- 
male sex reside in their own feelings. Many civ- 
ilized women please, rather than inspire with re- 
spect. They prefer alluring manners to perma- 
nent friendship. Many are charming, romantic, 
vain, or fine sentamental ladies. They are occu- 
pied with trifling things, mere beings of sensibility 
and pleasure, refined by novels, poetry, and gal- 
lantry ; but they should never forget, that they 
will always be considered as insignificant when 
they wish only to be fine ladies, and not to fulfil 
the duties which nature has assigned to them. 

Thus, the feelings and their combinations in 
women, tend much to make them dependent. To 
be independent, it is not sufficient to be endowed 
with the feeling of duty and justice as the principal 
motive ; these must also be combined w^ith indil 
Terence about the opinion of others when unjust, 
with courage and perseverance, r. order to resisi 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 215 

difficulties and obstacles, and to attend oily to the 
aim, and to tlimk of the necessary means. 

In order to understand perfectly the great 
phenomenon observad at all times, that one half 
jf the human species has excluded the other half 
from all participation in government, it is neces 
gary to compare also the understanding of the two 
sexes. 

The intellectual faculties, though, like the feel- 
ings, essentially the same in both sexes, are wide- 
ly different in power in the two, and in the ac- 
tual state of things men undoubtedly enjoy the 
superiority. I by no means say, that women are 
made to be the toys of men, much less their slaves : 
and I wish that their understanding may be more 
cultivated than it usually is, not by Latin and 
Greek, but by useful knowledge. Let their whole 
character be prepared for the important duties in 
their future stations as wife and as mother. Who- 
ever will attend to female education, v/ill find that 
they acquire many notions of individual things ; that 
they excel in the recitation of anecdotes and de- 
scriptions of manners, in the epistolary style ; that 
they are admirable in details, but dwell on effects, 
without tracing them back to their causes. In 
arts and science females rarely show themselves 
masters, they most commonly remain apprentices. 
Those female authors who defend their sex, main- 
tain that their education is neglected, and that on 



216 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

this account alone they are inferior, for they are 
ail obhcred to admit the actual inferiority of the 
fair sex. Yet there can be no doubt that more 
gu'ls than boys learn music, drawing-, and paint- 
ing, and that many females cultivate these ar^^s ex- 
clusively. Why then, we may ask, do their com- 
positions so rarely equal those of men ? When- 
ever great combinations, deep reflection, discrim- 
ination, and general abstraction are required, 
when principles and laws are to be established, 
females in general remain behind. A shawl or a 
ribbon will soon absorb their minds, and make 
them easily neglect any philosophical discussion. 

Thus, there is a natural difference between ike 
two sexes, not in the number, but in the degrees 
of the primitive powers of the mind. Some are 
stronger in women, others stronger in men, and 
both sexes seem to be destined to different occu- 
pations in society. Indeed no education wili 
change the nature of the innate dispositions. Let, 
then, each sex, and each individual, be cuUivated 
and employed in those things for which he is fit. 
The claim to justice and merit is equal in man 
and woman ; their duties only are different. Fe- 
males are not destined in any circumstances to be 
slaves, or mere patient drudges, nor are their du 
ties limited to those of chaste wives and good man 
agers of their families only ; women are required 
a^so to direct the ediicaticn of their children, and 
to be agreeble and intelligent companions to their 



EDUCATION OF THE bLALS. 2 1 'i 

hus:ands. Lei their unders-tanding's be cultivated 
by useful knowledge ; by the study of the hun)an 
mind, and the principles of education, and of their 
duties in the direction of their families ; let their 
intellect be improved by the study of history and 
of arts and sciences. Girls commonly learn only 
objects of secondary importance, mere accomplish- 
ments ; and hence, when they arrive at the age of 
being united to a husband, they are seldom capa- 
ble of supporting permanent friendship, by the 
elevation of their minds, and the steady practice 
of the domestic virtues. Many do not know how 
to guide themselves, and still less their oHTspring, 
their servants, and household affairs. Indeed, if 
the fair sex go on as they have done hitherto, they 
cannot repine that they have no share in political 
concerns. If their minds do not take a more seri- 
ous and more solid turn, they may govern in 
drawing-rooms, where delicate feelings and polite 
manners are attended to, but they will have no 
permanent influence on the laws of society. 

I beg leave, however, to repeat, that I adnut 

individual exceptions, and speak only of the sex 

in general. I even think, that legislators are 

wrong to take it for granted, that the intellect of 

men is, in every case, superior to that of women. 

Some females contribute more than their husbands 

to the fortune of the family : Is it then not unjust 

to permit the husband to spend what the wife has 

gained, and to deprive her of power, when, in 
20 



218 EDUCAT13N OF MAN. 

point o fact, she might manage affairs to /he ad 
vantage of her fam ly and of herself? 

I would not like to be misunderstood, and cer- 
tainly not to be thought hostile to the fair sex. I 
most sincerely wish their advancement in every 
respect. In my opinion there should be a greater 
number of better wives, if there v/ere a greater 
number of better husbands. But I think of women 
what I say of nations. If they want a Saviour 
from without, they are not yet fit for emancipation. 
Let them do the work necessary to this change, 
and they will no longer complain of inferiority. 
Let the girls cultivate their intellect by practical 
knowledge. Let them aim at solidity as well as 
])olite and refined manners, and not at prudery. 
This latter can be an indication neither of sense 
nor of taste. Society, where both sexes meet to- 
gether in social intercourse, is most conducive to 
mutual improvement, to delicacy of sentiment and 
language. Why do gentlemen exclude ladies from 
their society when they meet to speak of scientific 
objects ? Ladies of former days probably have 
shown less taste for such conversations. Or is it 
the fault of the gentlemen ? In that case let our 
females direct the attention of men to science and 
arts, let them prove that they have the same de- 
sire of knowledge as their pretended Lords, and 
are not occupied merely with finery, ornamental 
dress, and showy appearances. Let them emanci- 
pate themselves. B .it as long as they can read 



EDUCATION GF THE SEXES. 219 

the Old Testament from one end to anothei and 
can listen to sermons where expressions are u-sed, 
which no delicate person would pronounce in po- 
lite society of gentlemen, whilst they think it in- 
delicate to speak at table of the leg of a fowl, I 
cannot help thinking, that there is some want of 
reflection either in the gentlemen who introduce 
such customs, or in the ladies who submit to them. 
or in both. I know the power of custom, but if 
the fair sex cannot overcome such fashionable, but 
nonsensical trifles, how can they imagine to be able 
to legislate for society at large .'' I am sorry to say, 
but, indeed I cannot perceive any arrangement of 
nature that can lead me to expect that women in 
general will cease soon to be considered as subor- 
dinate to men in the higher intellectual capacities. 
Their feelings obscure easily their understanding ; 
this is evident in their religious manifestations. In 
social life they seize quickly the useful and prac- 
tical part of things, but they seldom take genera) 
and comprehensive views. Yet let the many grat- 
ify their ambition ; let them endeavor, if they 
please, to acquire the same degree of talent, ener- 
gy, penetration and perseverance which we see in 
many men ; but, till they have acquired it, let then, 
cherish order, and exercise the virtues of their 
actual condition in society, rather than to present 
themselves in a sphere for which they, generally 
speaking, are not fitted. 



220 EDUCATION OF MAN. 



CHAPTER VL 



EDUCATION OF NATIOISS 



The first idea that presents itself i i this Chapter, 
is to inquire who, according* to the laws of the 
Creator, is intrusted with national education, 
this being" taken in the most extensive siornification 
of the word. In treating of the education of chil- 
dren, I took it for granted, that parents are their 
natural protectors and leaders, and that they ought 
to consider it their duty, to favor the happiness of 
their progeny. On the other hand, parents, being 
free agents, are to be declared answerable for their 
influence on their offspring. 

Nations and governments are often compared 
the former with children, and the latter with pa 
rents. The analogy, however, is very inaccura^ie^ 
nations never owing their existence to their gover- 
nors. This comparison is further objectionable, 
since nations always provide for the living of their 
rulers. It seems, therefore, more reasonable to 
think, that individuals unite under determinate 
conditions for the sake of the common good ; and 
submit, on that account, to an appointed leader or 
director. But »vho could fancy hat this submis- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 221 

gion can be agreed to at the expense of the general 

welfare ? — The sovereignty of nati{)ns seetns evi- 
dently to be a law of the Creator, and will be ac- 
knowledged in proportion as men become intelii- 
i'ent and virtuous. 

Yet, let us suppose what governors like to per- 
suade mankind : that they exist by the grace of 
Gob, viz. allowing this to be in the same way as 
every arrangement is made, and every kind of 
order is established by the will of the Creator ; 
but let us add the question, whether God, the Fa 
ther of all, according to reason and Christianity, 
could establish civil and religious governments 
for the' sake of any absolute power and private 
pleasure, independent of general happiness ? — 
Reason s?ys, that wherever there is a community, 
its aim can be the public good alone. This prin- 
ciple prevails as regards families, tribes, nations 
and mankind at large. Christianity teaches the 
same doctrine. Jesus Christ, instead of assign- 
ing privileges to his disciples, abolished all per- 
sonal supremacy and prerogatives. "■ Ye know," 
fiaid he, " that the princes of the Gentiles exercise 
dominion over them, and they that are great ex- 
ercise authority upon them ; — But it shall not be 
so among you, but whosoever will be great among 
you, let him be .your minister, and whosoever 
wi- be chief among you, let him be your servant." 
(jMatt. XX.) " The disciples had disputed among 
themselves who should be the greatest ; and he 
20^ 



222 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

sat down and called the twelve and said unto 
them, If any man desire to be the first, the same 
shall be the last of all and servant of all." (Mark 
ix.) He ordered them to be peaceable, humble, 
charitable, and satisfied with their daily bread. 
The following" text, " Render unto CsBsar the 
things which are Csesar's, and unto God the things 
that are God's," (Matt, xxii.) commonly quoted to 
prove that Christianity is not against absolute 
rulers, bears, in my opinion, a more sound interpre- 
tation than is commonly given to it. Christ im- 
posed upon his followers a new code of morality, 
which was the will of his heavenly Father, and 
incumbent on all his disciples, Jews and Gentiles . 
one of its great commandments, applicable to all 
members, is to love our neighbor as ourselves. 
Now, I doubt, whether common sense can allow 
privileges compatible with such a doctrine ? If 
v/e maintain that Jesus Christ sanctioned abso- 
lute power, because be did not interfere with it ; 
it may be said, with equal propriety, that he 
sanctioned every state of things, he did not men- 
tion. Is it not a natural consequence of his 
doctrine* that those who follow it, change their 
former manner of living, and abandon the abuses 
of preceding ages ? at all events, even those who 
consider God as the true legislator, and them- 
se.ves as the directors appointed by his special 
grace, must acknowledge that t-he a-im of Chris- 
tianity is the general happiness of mankind, and 
that all notions opposed to that cause, m.ust be 
abandoned. 



f.DUCATlON CF ^fATIONS. 223 

The reader, then, may easily suppose, that 1 do 
lot intend to examine the means favorable to gov- 
ernments, in order to dispose nations to be satisfied 
with the good pleasure of their rulers, to keep 
them in ignorance and poverty, to force them to 
passive obedience, and employ them to mere selfish 
)urposes, in short, to enslave them ; on the con- 
trary, my object is evidently to speak of the means 
whicli may enable governments to fulfil the only 
reasonable and moral destination of their existence. 
[ take it for granted, that general welfare is the 
object of national education, and go at once to the 
inquiry how this is to be obtained. 

In national education as in that of individuals, 
the same principles prevail. Those who wish to 
contribute to this great work must always remem- 
ber, first, that they cannot create, but are confined 
to the laws of the Creator ; hence, that they can 
produce certain eflTects only imder conditions ; 
secondly, that the faculties of the mind are innate, 
and that their manifestations depend on the 
cerebral organization ; thirdly, that the special 
faculties of the mind are essentially the same, 
but more or less active in different nations ; 
fourthly, that man acts from feelings rather than 
from intellect ; and finally, that the feelings in 
themselves are blind, and that their actions must 
be regulated by reason. Convinced of these prin- 
ciples, they may endeavor to increase or diminish 
the activity of the individual powers, and direct 
them towards the aim of society. 



224 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

With respect to the general preliminary princi- 
ples of national as well as individual education, I 
refer to my other publications, where these points 
are examined with details ; even in treating of the 
means necessary to obtain the desired effect of na- 
tional education, I may be short, since they are 
the same as those explained in the preceding 
chapters. 

Among the means of improvement, propagation 
occupies the first place, and crossing tne breed is 
the surest way of changing races. Foreign inva- 
ders, who intermarried with the old inhabitants, 
have greatly contributed to change the character 
of different nations ; and new settlers who mix 
with the natives will be of greater effect than all 
sorts of other regulations. The northern provinces 
of Ireland are inhabited by Scotch, and by a mix- 
ed race of Scotch and the primitive inhabitants ; 
their character is known to be different from that 
of the Leinster people, and their cerebral organi- 
zation is not less so. Tribes, by attending to the 
laws of hereditary descent during several genera- 
tions, might be modified with greater certainty 
than by theoretical instruction in reading and 
writing, by hearing sermons and repeating prayers. 
Granted that governments have no right to force 
nations, except in conformity with the established 
laws ; they may, however, if they reaJly mind the 
welfare of the people, inculcate the natural laws 
of hereditary descent, and find various ways to 



EDUCATION :f NATIONS. 225 

favor their practice. Careless tribes ouglit to in 
terniarry with cautious persons ; fearful with coura- 
g"eous ; gloomy with gay, &c. Natural morality 
and Christianity command nations to live in peace, 
and by crossing their blood, their faculties of body 
and mind may be strengthened and improved. 
The principle. Make the tree good and it will 
bring forth good fruit, is undeniable. 

Thus, the knowledge of the laws of hereditary 
descent being the first and surest means of im- 
proving nations, deserves the attention of legisla- 
tors and governors : it embraces the conditions of 
innate strength of body and mind ; the causes of 
degeneration ; the propagation of hereditary dis- 
eases ; the number of inhabitants, or population ; 
and the regulation of marriages. A military gov- 
ernment, that institutes the conscription, such as 
it existed in France under the reign of Buonaparte, 
— that carries on war for several generations, and 
distributes all the honors only to soldiers, — is the 
greatest curse to a nation. Degeneration will be 
unavoidable, since all the better heads are sacri- 
ficed, and the inferior allowed to propagate. On 
the other hand, when all inferior moral and intel- 
lectual organizations are employed as soldiers, 
and prohibited from marrying, the military line 
may be very useful to society. Hence, if stand- 
ing armies be necessary, take up in preference 
those who enlist from laziness and disorderly 
nabits, and who are under the inflaence of the 
lower propensities. 



22Q EDUCATION OF MAN. 

I think it necessar/ to ac d, that it is by no means 
my intention to degrade the military profession ; I 
acknowledge its usefulness and merit in time of 
necessity, as in a war of defence against foreign 
aggression. I even admit, that in order to resist 
with vigor, every member of the community 
should be exercised in the use of arms, and be 
obliged to defend his country in case of attack. 
The number of degenerated brains will always be 
small in proportion to the great bulk of the na- 
tion ; they will be easily kept in order, partly by 
the regular behavior and good example of their 
companions, partlj^ by the severe laws of military 
discipline. Their number will also diminish by 
degrees, when all the principles of national edu- 
cation shall be practised. The great weight I lay 
on this proceeding depends on the means of puri- 
fying the race, by preventing the inferior organi- 
zations'from propagating. 

The next object of national education concerns 
what is commonly styled physical education, or 
the regulation of the vegetative functions. It in- 
cludes the salubrity of air and light, cleanliness, 
food, clothing, bodily exercise, in short, corpo- 
real health and strength, these being indispensable 
conditions to personal happiness and public use- 
fulness. 

In this respect, too, a good deal more than gen- 
erally is. might be done : in taking for granted that 



EDUCATION OF JVATIONS. 221 

governments never act from selfish views, bu al- 
ways with the intention to favor the public good, 
since they are aware that they themselves die, 
whilst their nation continues and may be everlast- 
ing, and that therefore they calculate their mea- 
sures not for momentary advantages, but for per- 
manent results. This latter point, however, is 
too often neglected, though it is a characteristic 
sign of greatness in a legislator, if his regulations 
be lasting, viz; adapted to nature and her manifes- 
tations. 

The preservation of bodily health and strength 
is of greater importance than legislators common- 
ly imagine, and its neglect during several genera 
tions may greatly contribute to the fall of a nation 
—Overgrown towns, capitals in general, aftei 
several centuries, would die out, if the inhabi 
tants were not renewed by people from the country. 
In the same way whole nations may be weakened 
by various causes : they may degenerate, lor.e 
their energy, grow old, as it is commonly express- 
ed, and become incapable to resist foreign invaders. 
Hence, whatever besides the innate dispositions of 
the body and mind, concerns the salubrity of hab- 
itations, the purity of air in the streets and houses 
food, cleanliness, bodily exercise, &c. belongs tc 
the scope of legislation. This chapter is vast, ar^d 
includes every point conducive to health anil 
strength. 



228 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

In lais as m any other respect, nations, like :h[\ 
dren, do not always understand what is the most 
advantageous to them. They are too often satis- 
fied with temporary amusements, and neglect tht 
conditions of permanent happiness. Legislators, 
therefore, be they hereditary and permanent, or 
chosen and temporary, might and ought to lead 
Ihe community, and prepare their happiness, ii\ 
the same way as parents provide for children. 

The views which governments entertain of their 
right to interfere with the personal liberty of the 
people, are sometimes very singular. They often 
show indifference about things which do harm to 
individuals and to the whole of the nation, and 
punish as crimes disorders which are of little con- 
sequence. They may wink at debauchery, drunk- 
enness, gluttony, luxury, &c. and bestow the 
right of hunting as a privilege ; they fix the quan- 
tity of wine which may be carried from one cellar 
to another, and inflict a penalty upon the trans- 
gressor, but license numberless ale-houses; they 
grant only a sn^all quantity of gunpowder to be 
kept in private houses, but tolerate gaming-places 
and lotteries; they force the individuals to be 
sailors or soldiers, but have no authority to pro- 
pagate vaccination ; they oblige medical men to 
study anatomy, and inflict upon criminals the dis- 
section of their body as a punishment, &c. ; they 
allow the poor to nmltiply as they like, and force 
the rich to nourish the poor and their progeny, 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 229 

d'l . Who does not perceive that they never hesi 
tate to interfere in whatever answers their own 
purposes, always under the pretext of the common 
welfare, but that tliey have no right to restrain 
llic personal hberty in whatever is indifferent to 
ib.ein. It seems to me that, among civilized na- 
tions, everv interlcrcncc of the c:overnment should 
be allowed which tends to tlic commonwealth, and 
wb.ich is obligatory forcvery mendDcr of the society. 
Personal exceptions are unjust, they weaken by 
degrees the force of the laws, and at last destroy 
their elHcacy. 

The req-ulations conccrnini]^ habitations and 
nourishment arc of prime influence. The situa- 
tion must be healthy, the air pure, its circulation 
free ; hence the streets large, the houses not too 
higii, the abodes and walks freed of every sort of 
ordure; dunghills and filth at a certain distance 
from dwelling-places and public roads. In short, 
it is necessary to enjoy cleanliness of every de- 
soription, and pure air in every situation. 

Nourishment must be adapted to the constitu- 
tion, age, occupation, climate and weather. No- 
thinGT is wholesome or unwholesome in itself. In 
northern countries, and in cold weather, animal 
food is more easily digested than vegetables ; these 
latter, on tlie contrary, agree better in the south 
and in hot weather ; whilst a mixture of meat and 

vegetables favors best bodilv strength in temper- 
21 



230 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ate climates ; but whenever animal food is we.. 
digested, it gives more strength to the bcxiy, and 
then vegetables, by feeding and multiplying do- 
mestic animals, should be changed into flesh, be- 
iore they serve to nourish man. 

Temperance and sobriety greatly invigorate the 
l)ody and mind ; intemperance and debauchery, 
therefore, should be restrained by all possible 
means. The natural wants are to be provided ; 
and as Christians pray only for their daily bread, 
objects of refined cookery might be imposed with 
enormous duty, and drunkenness considered as a 
civil fault. 

As bodily exercise particularly strengthens, as 
it invites to sleep, and secures against great disor- 
ders, it is to be generally encouraged. Gymnastic 
amusements may be established for all ages and 
for all classes of society. The Jews were ordered 
on the sabbath day to take a walk out of the city ; 
and here rich and poor, young and old, master 
and slave, met and indulged in innocent mirth or 
jn the pleasures of friendly intercourse. Moses, 
too, instituted three national festivals, not only 
!or the sake of religion, but also to maintain na- 
tional union. The gymnastic exercises and na- 
tional games of the Greek and their good effects 
are generally known and admired. Why then 
are similar enjoyments and means of producing 
public spirit neglected by modern legislators ^ 



EDUCATfOX OF NAT ONS. 231 

Why are priests allowed '^^o change the sabbatn clay 
into a day of gloom, wliilst Moses wish.ed it io oe a 
day of cheerfulness ? The rich amuse themselves 
during the week, they have balls, or at least other 
parties of joy in which the clergymen themselves 
participate ; but are the poor, who work from 
Monday to Saturday for their sustenance, to be 
entirely deprived of every kind of amusement? 
Will they not naturally be drawn i,u ale-houses 
and gin-shops, or at least feel inclined to indulge 
is drunkenness or other animal propensities, since 
all public amusements, even a walk in the fields, 
are interdicted. The true sense of religion is mis- 
understood, and the bad consequences are unavoid- 
able. I have reason to believe that refined civili- 
zation on one hand, and gloom in religion on the 
3th er, are great causes of misery and many secret 
sins which ruin the health of many individuals. 
Priesthood should consider it their duty to be 
better acquainted with human nature and the laws 
of the Creator, which man never violates withor.t 
suffering for it. Religion cannot be instituted to 
make man miserable, or to prepare him for the 
mad-house. 

Idleness, the great source of personal dissatisfac- 
tion and of many faults and crimes, should be de- 
clared a moral and civil vice, and as such prohib- 
ited. Every one should be obliged to exercise a 
profession ; mendicity entirely forbidden ; and 



232 EDUCATION* JF MAN. 

every citizen Iionored in proportion as .le con 
tributes to the welfare of his fellow-creatures. 

Here a difficult matter present? itself conceri-ing 
the poor and charitable institutions. The feelings 
are blind, and temporary relief of a feeling may 
do permanent mischief. This seems too much 
the case with charity. The poor are undoubtedly 
a burden to themselves and to the community at 
large ; I find, therefore, whatever contributes to 
increase their number objectionable, charitable in- 
stitutions not excepted, since in providing alimenta- 
tion for the poor they encourage their propaga- 
tion. It is not my object to examine this matter, 
but I admit, with all enlightened political Econo- 
mists, that the number of population depends on 
the means of alimentation, though it cannot be 
said that the most populous countries are the most 
happy. I also refer the reader to the chapter on 
happiness, in the Philosophical Principles, Vol. 11. 
of Phrenology, to make him understand niy man- 
ner of thinking. I here confine myself to state 
the reasons which induce me to blame the obliga- 
tion to provide for the poor. It is generally nn- 
just to force others to work for our wellare ; nnn 
if the government think it right to prevent nse 
from doinsr so with others, there is no more rii^ht 
to oblige me to nourish others, or to work for 
them. All donations of this kind should be vol- 
aitary Governments may excuse this inj\istice 
by the puoUc order and welfars, b;:t ^vould they 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 23S 

not act more prudently by removing the causes of 
misery than by increasing- the number of the mis 
erable ? As general welfare is the aim of society, 
and as the poor-laws and chiritable institutions 
augment the mass of misery, benevolent and char- 
itable persons will do well to reflect and reason 
before they act, in order to bring their feelings in 
harmony with reason. It is a well known fact, 
that charitable institutions of any kind never 
diminish the number of those who stand in need 
of assistance; hence they give rise to permanent 
harm. Their nature should be changed, and it 
might be taken as a leading point, that public in- 
stitutions are to be abolished, if they augment 
public misery, and to be encouraged as far as they 
diminish misery and establish general happiness. 
Public schools where useful knovvledg-e is tauo-ht, 
institutions for blind or for deaf and dumb, and 
hospitals for unforeseen accidents, are of the latter 
kind. Legislators in general are not careful 
enough in reference to pauperism. 

As sufficient alimentation is the first condition 
of our preservation, and as parents are bound by 
nature to bring up their children, those who c:ui- 
not provide for a family should be prevented froni 
propagation. On the other hand, as idleness and 
niendicity are civil fuilts, charitable institutions 
should be houses of correction or penitentiaries. 
The 'azy and mendicants might be confiueil. in- 
2P 



234 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ptructed, ediicaled, obliged to work, and kept till 
they can provide for themselves. 

Again, as many occnpations in society are hurtful 
to health, they must be superintended, particularly 
if youth be employed therein. Children, for in- 
stance, brought up in factories and hot rooms, una- 
voidably degenerate, and hev ^ne sources of fu- 
ture misery. 

The consequences of idleness and poverty being 
deplorable, activity and industry are to be patron- 
ized. Yet also this proceeding is not without in- 
convenience. Besides the misery which attends 
the working classes, in proportion as they degen- 
erate, the happiness of the f^imilies who enrich 
themselves by industry and commerce is never 
lasting, since riches invite to luxury, and luxury 
occasions many evils of body and mind in individ- 
uals and nations. I grant that, in the actual state 
of things, luxury has the advantage of bringing 
money into circulation, and this ought to be at- 
tended to as long as great riches are collected. 
But the mischief begins if the owners spend above 
their income, or if they look out for gain by every 
means. In this way, a too great anxiety about 
riches, as well as great poverty, do harm. 

Two important ideas concerning riches may be 
examined : 1. Great wealth is neither sufficient nor 
necessary to personal happiness; and, 2. Riches 
alone do not secure the duration of nations any 
more than tha: of families. 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. Zbo 

The first idea is confirmed by daily observation 
A greater number of persons understand to make 
a fortune rather than to enjoy it; and whilst they 
collect and work, they are commonly happier and 
more satisfied than when they give up business and 
live in retirement. Personal happiness depends 
on health, and health on temperance. Now this 
virtue only requires a moderate income, which 
may be procured by a moderate exertion. This 
state again protracts the necessity to work, and 
keeps up an essential condition of happiness, which 
is no more possible without occupation than col- 
lecting wealth without activity. 

The second idea is equally certain, and confirmed 
ny history. Monarchical governments, therefore, 
who want a court and splendor, keep up rich 
families by primogeniture, and hitherto they en- 
deavored to preserve their nation by poverty and 
ignorance. The examination of this subject be- 
longs to political economy, a science destined, in 
my opinion, to discover means not only of colleci 
ing wealth, but of securing property. 

This object is interesting both in a moral and 
political point of view; and here we find anew 
example of justice being nseparable from the gen 
eral and permanent happiness of mankind. Ricli 
families left to themselves degenerate. Now is it 
not evidently a great injustice, that degraded 
children enjoy wealth, whilst acUve and intelU- 



236 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

gent members of society are deprived of the pos- 
sibility to ameliorate their situation, as it hap})ened 
under the feudal system? The bulk of a nation 
living in that state is miserable, and the rewsources 
of its government are exceedingly small. 

On the othei hand, if landed property remain 
in the possession of a few families, by the law of 
primogeniture, whilst others can enrich themselves 
by industry and commerce, the number of inde- 
pendent persons increases, welfare and comfort be- 
come more general, and the pecuniar}^ resources 
of the government grow in the same proportion. 
Yet the injustice of primogeniture, and most likely 
the degeneration of families, will continue. 

But justice is accomplished, personal happiness 
procured to the greater number, and the greatest 
advantage secured to the government, if all sorts 
of privilege be banished, every individual allowed 
to employ his talents, and to earn the profit of his 
labors, and to spend his property as he pleases. 
Under such circumstances individuals and fami- 
lies will disappear, but the nation will flourish 
and last. There will be talents in abundance ; ac- 
tive and intelligent citizens will collect riches, and 
lay great weight in the balance of national pro- 
perty and resources. Yet it may be observed that 
the aristocracy of many, founded on the moral 
system of utility, without previous education and 
without natural sentiments of manners and refine 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 23*7 

mc.it is the least agreeable. As rich families com- 
monly degenerate and become soon poor again, re- 
fined manners are neglected; even the fine arts 
are less cultivated, as long as the community 
stands in need of pecuniary resources. Marriao-es 
arc forused according to the views entertained of 
wealth and comfort, however degenerated the par- 
ties may be under republican governments; there- 
fore, particular care should be taken in education 
with respect to social refinement. All possible 
means which prevent rich families from deffenera- 
ting, ought to be pointed out and attended to. 
If the things go on as they did hitherto and still 
do, there is no wonder that many are disappointed 
in their wishes and expectations. 

Natural talents and dispositions being different, 
there can be no equality except that before the 
law, which is the same to ail, and equally pro- 
tects the poor and the rich ; which allows to 
every one the use of his powers, rewards personal 
merit, and makes every transgressor answerable 
for the disorders he commits. The natural dif 
ference of mental dispositions, as to quantity and 
quality, and the innate love of distinction and 
superiority, will always be a mighty cause of pub- 
lic disturbances. Rulers, therefore, ought to be 
very careful in regulating these matters, and they 
ought to know that, without morality all their la 
bor is n vain. 



238 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Those who take interest in the duration of 
public prosperity, will highly appreciate riches, 
and acknowledge the great influence and power 
which they bestow on their possesors, be these 
single individuals or nations. But governors will 
find, that, to produce the desired efTect, besides 
riches, many other conditions concerning body 
and mind must be attended to, and just the same 
as are necessary to the improvement and preserva- 
tion of individuals. They will seriously reflect 
on what Lord Bacon said to King James, of the 
true greatness of Britain, viz. that in the measur- 
ing or balancing of greatness, there is commonly 
too much ascribed to largenees of territory, to 
treasure or riches, to the fruitfulness of the soil or 
aflluence of commodities, whilst the true greatness 
requires a fit situation of place, and consists essen- 
tially in population and breed of men, so that 
every common subject should be fit to make a 
soldier. Supposing even that war might be avoid- 
ed, a healthy, intelligent and moraJ breed of men 
IS still the most essential condition of national du- 
ration and happiness. 

The legislators in America might, nay ought 
to be particularly attentive to the laws of the new 
settlers. They may rely on the laws of nature 
bein^^ more powerful than their arbitrary concep- 
tions. If they admit the races of men indistinctly, 
what they never do with animals, the country will 
and must experience more trouble than commonly 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 239 

ife thought of. The slave dealers kno^v that one 
race of negroes is preferable to another, and why 
should it not be the same with the white. The 
evil will not be remedied in educating the chil- 
Iren and in establishing poor-houses for the heed- 
less adults. The number of troublesome citizens 
\vill rather increase by such means. 

The influence of public institutions is conceived, 
and should be conducted according to the laws of 
exercise, (as explained above, Sect. I. chap, iii.) 
Institutions in order to produce effect must be 
lasting ; but every sort of institution, if continued 
for generations, will accustom whole nations to 
certain manners of feeling and thinking, and 
strengthen the special and individual powers of 
the mind. 

In examining this subject, the following propo- 
sitions may be laid down as principles. Nations, 
as well as individuals, act from feelings ; feelings 
do not result from intellect, nor intellect from 
feelings ; and every faculty, in order to be exer- 
cised, must be put into action. It may be added 
that, generally speaking, the selfish feelings are 
strong enough, and scarcely need any exercise, 
whilst those destined to forward the public hap- 
piness are commonly weak ; — farther, that lessons 
and sermons never suffice to root out strong feel- 
ings, and seldom hinder their disorderly effects ; — 
lina.ly tb "it natural means may be employed with 



S40 EDUCATION OF MAN 

peculiar advantage, in order to increase, ciminish, 
or prevent the activity of-any fundamental faculty 

As to the objects to be taught, two general re- 
marks may be made : it is a great error to con- 
fine education to intellectual instruction ; and, 
secondly, it is wrong to attend rather to theoreti- 
cal than practical knowledge. Ignorance is cer- 
tainly a fertile cause of error, but society at large 
v/ill derive greater benefit from moral improve- 
ment than from scientific acquirements. Theo- 
retical schoolmen, I am sorry to say, are too 
much attached to intellectual instruction, and 
not enough to the progress of moral conduct. In- 
tellect, however, furnishes means to gratify the 
animal nature, as well as the nobler feelings of 
man. There should be schools for infants, chil- 
dren and youth, where positive notions of things, 
their usefulness and means of Improvement, are 
communicated by the way of mutual instruction ; 
where, at the same time, morality is shown in 
action and imposed as a duty ; where refined man- 
ners are inculcated ; and where physical educa- 
tion is particularly taken care of. I hope the 
time will come, when every one will learn to read, 
to write and to cipher, in order to be able to ac- 
quire rew notions, to teach others that which he 
knows and to assist his recollection ; v/hen all 
knowledge, extended according to age and partic- 
ular classes of society, will be practical, from the 
most common notions of household aflTairs and ag- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 241 

riciiltnre, to the deeper conceptions of arts and to 
tlie principles cf sciences ; when, at the same 
time, the feeUngs will be exercised and their 
actions reg-nlated according- to the principles ol 
.norality ; wh^ nothing will be taught or learned 
merely lor the school, but every thing in refer- 
ence to universal happiness ; when the religious 
feelings will be cultivated in every one, not by 
words bat in deeds, not by superstitious formali- 
ties, but in harmony with reason and with the in- 
tention to improve the fate of mankind ; when 
even the animal feelinsf-s will not be nes^lected, but 
only employed as powerful means to assist the 
faculties proper to man, which alone are the aim 
of our existence ; finally when all the powers of 
tiie physical, intellectual and moral nature will be 
cultivated in harmony. 

From the preceding remarks it follows, that the 
principles of excitement are the same for govern- 
ments as for parents. The same rule too, holds 
out with respect to the direction and employment 
of the special powers. Wliatever contributes to 
the general happiness must be encouraged and 
commended, whilst the contrary is to be prevent- 
ed and forbidden. Education can neither be con- 
fined to the body nor to intellect, nor to the feel- 
ings, but all sorts of powers must be exercised at 
the same time, and in harmony with each other. 
Reason, destitute of the assistance of feelings, re 

mains cold, and feedings without reason are bliridi 

22 



242 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

and prepare numberless disorders. Fina ly, Jie 
affective and intellectual manifestations of the 
mind depend on the body. Even religion, with- 
out being combined with understanding, unavoid- 
ably degenerates into superstition, and may become 
a frequent cause of insanity and suicide. Religion 
too, as well as intellect, without morality, will do 
more harm than good to society at large, in nour- 
ishing party spirit, self esteem, and all sorts of 
selfish feelings. Civil governments, who know 
that they are instituted for the common welfare 
ill this life^ will proclaim the same rules of moral 
conduct for every member of the community, and 
tolerate every religious opinion, provided it does 
not disturb peace nor injure the rights of others. 
They v/ill confine their exertions to the actual 
state of society, and not interfere in any way with 
the life to come ; they will remit all conceptions 
of that kind to every one's own conscience. 
There will be no creed obligatoiy, and none will 
enjoy particular advantages ; in other words, 
there will be no religion of state. I also think, 
that such governments will consider it as right, to" 
pay teachers only for things which are useful to 
every one, but refuse to charge the community 
with expenses for knowledge which is advanta- 
geous to single individuals alone. Spontaneous do- 
nations, or voluntary contributions, however, may 
be allowed to propagate knowledge of every kind, 
whilst the only duty of the government' remains to 
protect every member of the community in his ex 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 243 

ertions, as long* as they are harmless to others, and 
conformable to general justice. Taxation will be 
proportionate to the advantages which individuals 
derive from the institutions which must be paid 
for. The things indispensable to human exist- 
ence and preservation, such as air, light, and fuel, 
v\^i!l be exempt from all duties, and indirect 
taxes in general will be abolished. Nothing but 
tl^e ncrht of the strongest, and selfishness, can keep 
up t. '■ things as they commonly are, in contra- 
diction with the principle that those who live have 
a right to exist ; that every one should earn but 
the profit of his labors ; that sinecures should be 
repealed, and idleness despised. 

A religious reform in general seems necessary 
and desirable. Very i'ew among those who allow 
themselves to reason, believe that the priesthood 
has the power of sending into, or excluding from, 
heaven. Christianity and common sense teach 
that every one should do his duty, and that he can 
do no more. Relisrious teachers, therefore, should 
be considered in the same way as teachers in lan- 
guages, arts and sciences. Every one who has 
talent and time might study religious ideas, write 
and c^mverse with others on them, in short, do as 
he pleases, provided he conducts himself in con- 
formity with the principles of general morality. 
Every one might read the Scriptures of Reveki- 
tion, and form his own opinion : and every civil 
government should follow the example of theUni 



244 EDUCATION JF MAN. 

ted States of America, and abolisli priesthood as a 
political body, or as a necessary division ot' the. 
g-overnment. Jesus expressly stated, that I. is king-- 
dorn was not of this world. (John xviii. SG ) 

I am aware that the sacerdocy w II object to 
such a reform, and do what they can to make 
man believe that there is no morality without re- 
ligion, and no religion without their office, and 
that they deserve to be largely rewarded. I, 
however, cannot help thinking, that man has been, 
and still is, misled by priests, .because he is natu- 
rally religious, and that priests ascribe to their in- 
fluence what belongs to the power of the Crea- 
tor. The time of what was called theocracy is 
over. I can, however, conceive, that where civil 
governments decide in every respect what people 
are permitted to do, religious as well as political 
opinions are dictated ; but it seems natural to ad- 
mit, that where liberal principles prevail, reli- 
gious and civil liberty should go hand in hand. 
Yet there is still too much credulity among tlie 
great number of the congregations. They are 
occupied during the week in their worldly con- 
cerns, and on Sunday, without troubling theiu- 
selves much with examination, they will listen to 
their clergyman ; if he speak to their liking, and 
according to their feelings. Some teachers wiP 
cry against the greaf pope of Rome, b^lt make at 
the same time the little pope in their pulpit, ii; 
Bending all who differ from their manner of think 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. :245 

ing, to eternal damnation, whilst they devjlare 
tb.eniselves and their followers predestined to eter 
nal beatitude : This doctrine, indeed, is comfort- 
able for the elect, and the congregation may say 
amm and sing Alleluia, but it shows also that 
common sense is sometimes wanted in religions 
considerations. I think it very wrong to leave 
these matters exclusively to a privileged profes- 
sion, whilst they ought to occupy every intelli 
ffcnt mind. I shall mention a few well known re- 
marks concerning the doctrine of the Sunday, or 
as it is also styled Sabbath keeping. The Sabbath 
day is allowed to be a noble institution of Moses, 
who ordained it, as a day of rest for man and ani- 
mals, hence a benevolent regulation for all classes 
of working people, particularly for slaves. The 
cessation of labor on one day of the week, aiueli .>- 
rates the condition of all laboring classes, and con- 
tributes to cleanliness, to the preservation of health 
and to the restoration of bodily strength. It also 
gives leisure for intellectual, moral, and religious 
instruction and meditation, and in fact a portion 
of the law was read to the Jews on the Sabbath 
day, and their physical welfare was attended to 
— No one can think that God in creating the world 
became literally speaking, fatigued, and wanted tc 
rest and refresh himself: (Exod. xxxi. 17.) and 
tnat this was the principal motive of the Mosaic 
law in reference to the Sabbath. It is only to be 
said that the Jewish language abounds in hguralivf* 

expressions. 

22* 



246 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The Sabbath was far:her commended to the 
Jews in remembrance of their delivery from the 
bondage in Eg3^pt, and as a sign of the old Cove- 
nant 

Two questions, however, arise : 1, wnether the 
Jewish Sabbath day is obligatory to the followers 
of Jesiis ; and 2, whether it is incumbent upon 
christians to keep the Sabbath in the same manner 
as the Jews did ? 

It is a fact generally known that the day itself 
has been changed since the time of the Apostles 
and the first Christians. (Acts xx. 7.; 1 Cor. 
xvi. 2.) 

In reference to the 2d question, it seems to me 
that, as with Jesus the old covenant ceased and a 
new one began, the Sabbath as well as circum- 
cision, both signs of the old dispensation, with all 
ceremonial observances prescribed for the Sabbath, 
are abolished, and that the Sabbath day is at an end 
altogether. The Jewish temple was destroyed, 
the Levitical priesthood, their sentiments, theii 
church government, the whole tone of their wor 
ship, and all signs of the Jewish covenant were 
gone. If the Jewish Sabbath-keeping be incum- 
bent .ipon Christians, I think the Jewish Sabbath 
year, and the Jubilee, too, o.ight to be kept up. 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 347 

Farther, we read that Moses, when he instituted 
the Sabhath, gave at the same time various other 
statutes, commandments, and moral laws, .which 
oLiG^ht to be either kept or abolished togeth- 
er. Jesus rectified a number of the Jewish moral 
laws. He, {ov instance, forbid polygamy, which 
Moses had allowed ; he abolished capital punish- 
ment of adultery, in opposition to Moses, and he 
made many other alterations as is evident from the 
sermon on the mount. 

Moreover, if the Jewish manner of keeping the 
Sabbath were obligatory and so important as 
many say, it appears extraordinary that Jesus 
should have been silent about it, whilst he con- 
stantly admonishes his apostles and disciples of 
the great commandments of love. • 

Jesus himself did on the Sabbath several things 
at variance with the Jewish law. He went, for 
instance, with his disciples through the corn-fields 
and plucked ears, — he cured diseases, and even 
said that the Sabbath was made for man, and not 
man for the Sabbath, and that therefore the Lord 
of man is Lord also of +he Sabbath. (Mark ii. 27. 
28.) He even admonisned his disciples to assem- 
ble and to sing to the glory of God ; lYiey were to 
be known by their good works and mutual love. 

It is also known that the Apostles and first 
Christians kept the Lord's day in a different man 



848 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ner in which the Jews kept their Sabbath. Si. 
Paul called a holyday, on the New moon or 
tlie Sabbath days a shadow of things to come, 
(Col. ii. 14 — 17.) He positively stated that '' ho 
who loves one another has fulfilled the law. 

it was, however, a practice among the first 
christians to assemble on the Lord's day, to sing, 
to break bread, to gather stores and to be instruct- 
ed ; in short they had religious assemblies upon 
the first day of the week as on the day on which 
Jesus arose from the dead ; — as a festival of the 
Creation ; — as a day of rejoicing and of holy wor- 
ship. But a cessation upon that day from labor 
beyond the time of attendance upon their meet- 
ings is not insinuated in any passage of the New 
Testament, nof did Jesus or his apostles deliver 
any couunand to their disciples for the discon- 
tinuance upon that day, of the common offices of 
their respective professions. If it was their inten- 
tion, they ought to have stated it, since they 
preached not only to Jews but also to Gentiles, but 
they never enforced the law of rest as in the Mo- 
saic lavfs. 

It is farther to be remarked, that Pliny the 
younger in his letter to Trajan, where he made 
a report concerning the Christians, wrote that " lie 
discovered nothing but that they were accustomed 
to meet together on a stated day before it was light, 
and sing among themselves a hymn to Christ, as a 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 249 

God, and to bind themselves by an oath not to 
commit any wickedness, nc;r to be gn'lty of theft, 
robbery, or adultery, never to falsify their words 
nor to deny a pledge." 

Finally, history tells us that Constantino first, 
A. D. 321, made a law for the observation of the 
Sunday throughout the Roman empire. The 
Sunday was declared a day of rest in cities and 
towns, but the country people were still allowed 
to follow their work. But in 330 the Council of Or- 
leans prohibited, also, country labor, and declared 
it unlawful to travel with horses, cattle, and car- 
riages ; — to prepare food ; — and to do any thing 
necessary to the cleanliness and decency of houses 
and persons. 

The only thing I contend for is that the Sunday 
of Christians cannot be the Jewish Sabbath, nei- 
ther as to the day nor as to the manner of Sancti- 
fication. Yet this institution is of great impor- 
tance, but enlightened minds will take greater 
views of it than mystical persons are wont to do. 
It is childish to think that we can do any thing to 
increase the beatitude of the Supreme Being. The 
name of divine service should be done away. Let 
It be a day of rest, and of physical, intellectual, and 
moral instruction and improvement, and of reli- 
gious adoration. It is also reasonable to commu- 
nicate instructive lessons in the form of songs, and 
the music may excite the nobler feelings, but it is 



250 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

pitiful to sing-, in disharmonioas ton .s, any his- 
torical narrative of the Jews, or incomprehensible 
metaphors of imaginary minds. In short, this 
institution might be turned to the greatest benefit 
and improvement of body and mind, among the 
lower, as v/ell as the higher orders^ whilst in the 
ordinary state of things it invites the former to 
disorders, physically and mentally speaking.- — I 
refer the reader Avith respect to my ideas on the 
religious and moral constitutions of Man, to the 
2d Vol. of Phrenology. 

My writings in general may prove that the prin- 
ciples of true Christianity alone satisfy my mind, 
but not Christianity disfigured by popery or by 
any sacerdocy who substitute their inclinations 
for the will of God, and declare themselves infal- 
lible ; nor Christianity that degrades the Creator 
and disturbs peace and general happiness. On 
the other hand,, the aim of civil governments 
being the common welfare of society, it seems to 
me that intelligent rulers should enact regulations 
to that purpose alone, and protect, and even en- 
courage religious ideas as far as they are condu- 
cive to, and in harmony with, that end ; but they 
should not employ religion as a means of gratify- 
ing selfish^ views, nor allow the priesthood to treat 
religion as a trade ; and certainly they shoiild not 
allow the priesthood to undermin'e th6 happiness 
of man, njr any religious sect to enjoy privileges, 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 251 

tnese being" positively interdic.ed b}^ Christianity. 
The public wants to be enlightened. 

In giving freely my opinion, I follow the prin- 
ciple of Protestantism, which grants the use of 
reason, and I agree with them who think that no 
one has the right to impose his religious opinions 
upon others ; that true religion consists in the 
fulfilment of all our moral duties ; that the be- 
lief of this truth having been revealed, is a pow- 
erful motive to practice morality, and that this 
was the will of the great and all-wise Intelligence, 
who arranged the universe, who gave man his 
moral nature and the laws of reason. 

On the other hand, I pity Mankind for not 
being able to bear the moral code of Christianity, 
and for not being ripe to enjoy religious and 
civil liberty. It is lamentable to see, that in 
some countries there are onlymasters and servants ; 
that superstition, ignorance, and jooverty are em- 
ployed to keep the people in subordination, and 
to gratify the selfish views of their civil and re- 
ligious leaders ; and that even among civilized na- 
tions, where the best known principles of govern- 
ment are in vigor, the great bulk cannot be left 
to themselves, but must be conducted. I, there- 
fore copy from Cowper's letter to the Rev. Wal- 
ter Bagot : " Do I hate a pars )n ? Heaven for- 
bid ! I love you all when you are good for any 
thing ; and as to the rest, I would mend them if I 



252 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

could, and thai is the worst of my intentions towards 
therri." And, from the hints of a Barris er to the 
public, " Whoever sets the best example of indus- 
try, uprightness, charity, justice, benevolence, 
njildness, integrity, and all those practical vir- 
tues which are the basis, immoveable and eternal, 
of Christianity ; such a man is the best teacher of 
religion which the community can possibly re- 
ceive." On the other hand, T reject, as destruc- 
tive, every doctrine which sows a spirit of secta- 
rian bigotry ; generates superstition ; introduces 
discord into the circles of domestic life, depre- 
ciates the bonds of charity and peace, or even 
reprobates all practical virtues and righteousness 
as filthy rags, and which places peculiar doctrines 
above the authority of the Gospel, whose great 
tendency is, and ever w411 be, to excite the sinner 
to repentance and reformation ; — to cultivate be- 
nevolence and justice, and to link together man- 
kind in the bonds of peace and charity. 

A favorable change is wanted, but it may be 
asked, who shall produce it ^ the governments, or 
the nations, severally or together .-^ Hitherto nations 
are too much accustomed to be guided ; and gov- 
ernors too fond , of commanding and imposing 
their good pleasure as law. Both parties seem to 
be wrong. Governments, it is true, may succeed 
better and sooner, since they can follow a regular 
plan, and have greater means. of e;xecution. But 
aj§ rulers are too much disposed to do what flat- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 253 

tcrs their selfishness, nations ought to think of their 
own welfiire, and know that vox populi is vox Dei. 
Instead of expecting every improvement from 
tlieir governors, they ought to work at their de- 
liv-erance from tutorage. There will be masters 
as long as there are servants, and children depend 
on their parents as long as they cannot gain their 
own livelihood. It is conceivable that govern- 
ments like to rule their subjects, but these are 
blameable for not using all reasonable means to 
gain and deserve their independency. They 
should be aware that a liberal government lets 
the people act for themselves, provided the com- 
mon welfare does not suffer, and that, on the 
other hand, governments are despotic in propor- 
tion as they interfere with personal liberty, and 
prevent the public good. In fact, in many situa- 
tions, when the things do not go on as they are 
wished for, nations may accuse themselves rather 
than their governors. By perseverance they will 
always obtain what they deserve. 

Remarks of this kind are also applicable to the 
improvement of religious creeds. It is an histori- 
cal fact, that the priesthood always wishes to keep 
religious ideas stationary, and that every religious 
reform began with individuals, or with the civil 
power. This will be the case as long as religions 
governors do not keep pace in knowledge nuc] 
mora improvement with the community at largo. 
Anv church whose tenets were composed in dark 
23 



254 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ages, and adapted to the capacities of ignorant' 
people, will be divided against itself, whenever the 
public become enlightened, and it must end in its 
overthrov/, if the leaders remain in ignorance, and 
confound the aim of religion with the mean? 
that lead to it. The former certainly remains 
the same at all times, and amongst all classes, but 
the latter must vary in different periods of civil 
ization. It is as lamentable as repugnant, to hear 
ignorant teachers speak of the heavenly Father as 
endowed with qualities for which every reasona- 
ble person would disdain his neighbor. The evil 
is great, and deserves the serious attention of the 
civil and religious governors. 

What, then, is to be done to establish civil and 
religious liberty ? Is it sufficient to proclaim a re- 
form ? By no means. The French tried one 
constitution after another, and it is scarcely deci- 
ded which suits them best. Civil and religious 
'iberty may be the law of a country while slavery 
and religious tyranny continue. It happens that 
there is sometimes more religious freedom under 
absolute governments than in republics. Man 
does not like to obey and to revere, but he is 
fond of governing others. He contends for free- 
dom for himself, but thinks to have the right to 
enslave others. When will stupidity and im- 
morality, severally cr jointly, cease to g«¥<tTR Uu* 
man affairs I 



EDUCATION or NATIONS. 255 

It is certain that the natural disjcsitions and 
tlieir activity determine tlie prog^ress of civi iza- 
tion in nations as well as in individuals. Ig-norant 
people are fond of darkness, while euliglitened na- 
tions cannot bear measures of obscuration. The 
French revolution abolished all external decora- 
tions and signs of distinction, but it was easy for 
Buonaparte to introduce them again, since the 
love of approbation is an essential feature in tlie 
French character. Any reform succeeds easily, if 
it be in harmony with the most active powers; 
but it will never take root, if it be contrary to the 
predominant powers, or if the necessary powers 
do not act. The doctrine of the innate dispositions 
cannot be taken too much to heart by those who 
wish to exercise an influence on the community. 
They may direct the given powers to different 
applications, but they can neither create nor anni- 
hilate. Many historical facts will be explained, 
and many erroneous opinions of government will 
be rectified, when the innate dispositions are 
understood. Then, also, not only the different 
progress in the various branches of literature, arts, 
and sciences, but also their modifications, in dif- 
ferent nations, will be easily conceived. 

Amongst many instances which might be quoted, 
I shall mention the following. The reformation, 
undertaken by.LuTKER, and continued i3y Calvin 
and others, gained more ground in Germany than 
in France, and it is more advanced in Scotland 



256 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

than n England, and it turned out very different 
]y in different countries. There is a great deal 
of rtiarvellousness and of the reflective powers in 
tlie Germans and in the English, but many of the 
former will begin with examining how far it is 
reasonable to believe, and give up rather belief 
than reason ; whilst the latter take belief as indis- 
pensable, and reason merely on interpretations. 
Self-esteem and love of notoriety are great in the 
English and French ; but Self-esteem is propor- 
tionately greater in the former, and love of appro- 
bation, combined with form, in the latter. The 
English, in their display of show, betray their 
predominant feeling, and wish to possess or do 
what others cannot ; for instance, to appear very 
rich in keeping horses, carriages, and many ser- 
vants, dressed in shoes and white silk stockings ; 
whilst the French wish to be approved of, and to 
attract the attention of others by a fine taste in 
their show-things. Thus, it is certain, that les- 
sons will make impression, and institutions suc- 
ceed, in proportion as they are adapted to the 
character of nations to whom they are given. De- 
fective heads can neither excel in arts and scien- 
ces, nor in the refined principles of morality or 
Christianity. 

The influence of institutions on nations does not 
only depend on their being acjapted-to the innate 
dispositions, but also on their duration. Tlicir 
effect is insignificant, if they be transitory and can- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 2ol 

not form habit. Any new institution- like any 
new doctrine, in order to be of permanent useful- 
ness, must become, so to say, incarnate, or be in- 
fused in the minds of the people ; but then tlieir 
in'fluence is certain, since the innate powers beinof 
exercised during generations, increase, and act 
with facility. I copy a suitable passage from ihe 
introduction to the History of France, by Cha- 
teaubriand, read by himself to the academie 
Francaise, in the sitting of the 9th of Feb. 1826. 

" It has been said, that from the time of Vespa 
siAN to Marcus Aurelius, was the period during 
which mankind enjoyed the greatest felicity. 
This is true, if the dignity and the independence 
of nations are to go for nothing. 

"Every imaginable kind of merit appeared ai 
the head of the empire. Those who possessed 
those qualities were free to undertake any thing 
they pleased ; they were shackled by no restraints; 
they inherited Nero's absolute power ; they could 
employ for good the arbitrary authority which 
had hitherto been used only as an instrument of 
evil. What, however, did this despotism of 
virtue produce ? Did it reform manners .'' Did 
it re-establish liberty ? Did it preserve the cm.- 
pire from its approaching fall ? No ; the hu- 
man race was neither altered, nor- improved. 
Firmness reigned with Vespasian, mildness with 

Titus, generosity with Nerva, grandeur with 
23* 



258 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

Trajan, the arts with Adrian, the piety of poly- 
theism with Antonine, and lastly, with Marcus 
AuRELius, philosophy ascended the throne ; — yet 
the fulfilment of this dream of sages, was produc- 
tive of no solid results to the world. No amelior- 
ations are durable, hone indeed are possible, when 
any act of government proceeds from the will of 
individuals, and not from laws and institutions ; 
and the pagan religion, no longer supported or 
corrected by austerity of manners, transformed 
men into old children, destitute alike of reason and 
of innocence. 

" There were, at this period, some Christians in 
the empire, they were obscure and persecuted, 
yei, with their despised religion, they accomplish 
ed what philosophy upon the throne could not 
achieve. They instituted laws, corrected man- 
ners, and founded a society which exists to this 
day." What a great lesson for legislators ! It is 
easy to regulate, but to give the feeling for the 
law, requires time and more than to give orders. 

In the examination of this subject, it is found 
that religious and civil regulations are degraded 
and improved in the same degree, and by the 
same reasons. Stupid and ignorant people are 
superstitious, and believe in the good pleasure of 
their abs )Iute rulers. Whoever is not able, or 
does lot dare to think, or does not feel contradic- 
tions and absurdities, is unfit for ^ refined religion 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 259 

and civil liberty. Understanding, indeed, is the 
first condition of civil and religious, as well as of 
personal and moral liberty, and ignorance a fer- 
tile cause of superstition and slavery. Under- 
standing improves plants and animals, and it is 
necessary to the improvement of nations and of 
the nature of man. The Germans, expressing 
civilization by the word aufklaerung (enlighten- 
ing,) indicate that they consider intellect as the 
basis of improvement. 

The great point in this discussion is to deter- 
mine, first, the origin and cause of liberty, and 
then the means of establishing and maintaining it. 
None of the faculties, common to man and ani- 
mals, conceives the idea of civil liberty any more 
than tiiat of religion. These conceptions result 
only from the human powers, and are retarded in 
their progress in proportion as they are influenced 
by the animal powers. The animal feelings are 
selfish, wish for personal advantage, like to take 
the first place in society, and dispose to religious 
intolerance and civil despotism. Hence, a nation 
is unfit for liberty in proportion as the animal 
powers are predominant over those proper to man. 
Courage, bravery, and stubbornness to death, are 
by no means sufficient to establish this happy 
state of society. Even the higher animal feelings, 
as attachment, love of approbation, cautiousness, 
acquisitiveness, and the perceptive faculties, are 
incapable o^ sef-^ring it. The animal nature, it 



260 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

is true, is powerful to oppose despotism, and so 
far conducive to liberty. Whilst timid, poor, and 
ignorant people remain slaves, the courageous, 
intelligent, and industrious seek for independency. 
In coiisci/uence, instruction and industry are the 
great means of establishing liberty, whilst igno 
ranee and poverty are its greatest enemies. In 
dustry procures riches, and these enable the pos- 
sessor to cultivate his understanding. It is, there- 
fore, not astonishing that all those who treat of 
political welfare speak of industry as necessary 
aiid favorable to liberty. But those who think 
that industry and riches are sufficient to secure 
liberty, are mistaken ; they evidently confound 
the means of establishing this great blessing with 
its primitive source, and with the means of main- 
taining it. Riches alone being a great cause of de 
generation in body and mind, are incompatible 
with permanent liberty. The same uncertainty 
of things continues, even if riches be assisted by 
understanding, since the motives of all actions 
still remain selfish and of the animal nature. 

With the faculties proper to man morality be- 
gins, and by their influence the animal nature is 
directed, every kind of privilege abolished, the 
number of publi^ officers who require emoluments 
diminished, every individual permitted to use his 
talents as he likes, provic ed he^ does not injure 
Dthers ; every community allowed to regulate its 
epecia. concerns, personal merit alone rewarded. 



EDUCATION OP NATIONS. 261 

the general welfare thought of, in short, civil lib- 
erty acknowledged. Aad if such a liberty be 
granted in worldly affrLuSj it is still more necessa- 
ry in things and opinions relative to the life to 
come and religion. The effect of feelings proper 
to man can become reasonable only by its union 
with the reflective powers, and natural morality 
is a corner stone of the preservation of any so- 
ciety. 

On the other hand, though the human nature is 
the source of civil and religious liberty, yet the 
faculties proper to man are not capable either of 
establishing or of warranting liberty. To that 
effect they need the assistance of instruction and 
of the animal powers, particularly of industry, or 
acquisitiveness, self-esteem, courage, , and perse- 
verance. In order then to establish and maintain 
civil and religious liberty, the whole man, his 
vegetative, affective, and intellectual faculties must 
be exercised, but the animal faculties constantly 
subordinate to those proper to man, that is, natural 
morality must prevail. 

In this way we have a criterion to decide 
whether, and how far, a nation is fit for civil and 
religious liberty ; whether, and how far, liberty 
which is granted or gained can last ; and whether, 
and how far, governments earnestly prepare the 
nations for that happy state. In the same way, 
those who wish tin forward liberty, may conceive 



262 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

what is to be done to secure general and perma-* 
nent felicity, and why hitherto all partial means 
could not succeed. Union and morality alone can 
save the future happiness of the United States of 
America. Being divided or without morality they 
will have the fate of the ancient and modern na- 
tions of the old world. Intellectual education 
alone cannot produce the desired effect, whilst the 
animal feelings predominate and physical educa- 
tion is neglected. Let the legislators beware of 
the detrimental consequences of selfishness, luxu- 
ry, ambition, vanity, of the animal feelings in gen 
eral, of all causes which contribute to the degen- 
eration of body and mind : let them be particular- 
ly careful about pauperism on one side, and great 
riches on the other, about idleness, degeneracy of 
the race and immorality. Praying alone, and reli- 
gious ceremonies will not remedy natural evils and 
the neglect of the natural laws. 

A delicate question too, viz. whether any nation 
of those we know of, can bear the Christian reli- 
gion in its greatest purity, and a republican gov- 
ernment in its strictest sense, may be answered in 
the negative, on account of the animal nature be- 
ing still disproportionate to that proper to man 
In speaking of a repubUcan government in the 
strictest sense, I mean a state of mind, where every 
one sacrifices his private interes', to the common 
welfare . 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 263 

In supposing then that any ruler may have the 
best intention to fulfil his duty, I conclude this 
chapter with repeating the points indispensable 
to his success. Let him become acquainted with 
human nature being threefold, with the innate- 
ness of the affective and intellectual faculties, 
with their dependence on the cerebral organiza- 
tion, and with their modifications in the nation 
he governs. Besides, let him understand that 
every innate power tends to action, but that the 
motives of the same action may be very different ; 
that regulations founded only on truth and moral- 
ity can last, and that the physical, intellectual, and 
moral nature of man must be cultivated in harmo- 
ny. Farther, an important point for him is to 
know to employ every one according to his natur- 
al gifts and talents, be it as servant, soldier, arti- 
san, merchant, artist, teacher of any kind, legis- 
lator, superintendent or president. He also must 
be aware that various talents are given to all class- 
es of society, to poor and rich, to country peo- 
ple as well as citizens ; and that natural nobility 
and personal merit of talent and virtue alone de 
:erve distinction. 

In republican governments, on the other hand, 
ihe electors must keep in mind that intellect is not 
-norality, that individuals must be judged of by 
their actions and not by their speeches, in the same 
way as the tree is known by its fruit ; and that 
no one who strives for piivate interest and fqr* 



^64 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

gets the common welfare, should be at the liead 
of public affairs. 



CHAPTER VII. 



A FEW IDEAS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION 

Various opinions are entertained upon the 
question, whether public or private education be 
preferable. The term education is here taken in 
a limited sense, and the answer would be easy, if 
education were what it ought to be. In the ac- 
tual state of things, the greater number of parents 
cannot adopt the private mode of education for 
want of pecuniary means. They must have re- 
course to public schools, if they wish to give to 
their children any education at all. The question, 
then, concerns chiefly the richer classes of society. 

There are advantages and disadvantages on both 
sides. Generally speaking, in private education, 
moral conduct and religious principles may be 
more carefully taught, and the natural disposi- 
tions better exercised. But here \vg must suppose 
the governors to be of superior ability. Suc\\ 
persons, however, are not so easily found. On 
the other hand, private teachers and servants 



ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 265 

Kindle very often inferior propensities, which 
would remain inactive were the children sent to 
public scliools. Again, as the education of bo3^s 
and girls must be conducted in a different man- 
ner, particularly in large towns, several day or 
boarding-schools become necessary. And if in 
these the moral conduct be particularly attended 
to, they will combine the advantages of a public 
and private education. In them, physical educa- 
tion can be better attended to than at home ; 
common play grounds and bodily exercise can 
be more easily procured. Such abodes are com- 
monly in healthy situations, and better teach- 
ers m.ay also be provided. It is of advantage 
to children to afford them opportunities of 
comparing their talents with those of others. 
When alone, they easily think themselves above 
all other children ; but when together, they often 
feel their inferiority. The less intercourse we have 
with others, the sooner we are satisfied with our- 
selves. This happens with children as well as 
with adults. Those who have travelled with re- 
flection and without prejudice, lose in many re- 
spects their national pride. They find that every 
where there are good and bad, ignorant and well- 
informed persons. Whoever remains confined to 
his own small circle, thinks all other society infe- 
rior, partly through a natural attachment to his 
accustomed manners, and partly through his not 
knowing what others are, or what advantages they 

possess. 

24 



Jb6 EDUCATION CF MAN. 

Knowledge of the v/orld, of different cnaracters 
of manners and social intercourse, is an important 
point in education. It is easily acquired in public 
institutions. Children soon learn to distinguish 
between the different manners of feeling and think- 
ing of their companions. 

Greater uniformity in manners, more mutual 
attachment and general benevolence, more order 
and greater readiness to obey and to depend on 
their superiors, may result from public education. 
There the feelings, in general, maybe more easily 
exercised and directed, because society is indis- 
pensable to that purpose, and private education 
can never afford the same opportunity. Finally, 
the srreat effect of emulation is entirely lost in 
private instruction ; and emulation may be neces- 
sary to some children in order to push them on. 

Thus, even in the actual state of things, public 
institutions are preferable, and they vi^ill be far 
superior, if once regulated according to sound prin- 
ciples and adapted to human nature. 

Conclusion. 

The great object of education is, not to create, 
but to prepare, to develope, or to impede, and to 
direct the natural dispositions : vegetative, affec- 
tive and in':ellectual. The nature of the funda- 
mental powers, and the conditions on which their 



ON PUBLIC AI'hD private EDUCATION. 2G7 

manifestations depend, must be known, to enable 
us to cultivate and direct them. The difference 
between the feelings and intellectual faculties, is 
particularly to be attended to. Then^ if the 
means of excitement and those of direction be em- 
ployed, as I have detailed them, arts and sciences 
will improve, moral evil will diminish, and man- 
kind will become more happy. I do not flatter 
myself, however, that in the preseiit state of man- 
kind, the most perfect education can abolish all 
disorders. Hence, institutions of another kind 
are necessary, which I shall speak of in the follow 
ing pages. 



A.PPENDIX. 



ON THE CORRECTION OR REFORM OF MALEFATORS. ^' 

As individuals differ exceedingly from each 
other in the innate strength of their faculties, there 
can be no doubt that adults, as well as children, 
if entirely left to thennselves, and to the motives 
which spring" up in their own minds, would not 
all be influenced either by the same number, or 
by the same kind of motives, nor would each mo- 
tive act with equal force in all. Besides, the 
faculties which produce the lower propensities, 
do not of them.selves produce good actions ; atid 
as they are stronger than the faculties proper to 
man, legislation is necessary to direct mankind. 
In regard to many particular acts, the government 
must command what is to be done, and l^orbid 
\vl\at is not to be done ; seeing {qw individiin.ls 
possess so favorable an endowuient of dispositiouo 
as to be naturally jjrone to virtue, or to have th-^ 



DEFINITION OF LEGISLATION. 2G9 

law written in their hearts. Now, the general 
aim of all legishition ought to be the happiness of 
inankind, combined, as far as possible, with that 
of each individual ; or, in the language of Phre- 
nology, it Kight to be to establish the natural mo- 
rality of man, confirmed by true Christianity. 
The lower animals have no conceptions of morali- 
ty, because they do not possess the faculties which 
produce the moral sentiments and reason. Hence, 
those faculties which are proper to man alone, 
conceive the necessity of legislation, and without 
them there would be none in mandnd any more 
than in the animals. 

Definition of Legislation. 

I take this expression in its most extensive sig^ 
nification, and conceive it to comprehend the rep;- 
ulation of the manner in which all our faculties 
ought to be employed. Positive legislation has 
been, and still is, very different in different coun- 
tries. The same actions have been and still are 
considered now as crimes, and then as virtues. 
The first great object is to distinguish natural 
Irom positive laws. It appears to me that both 
ought to be the same, and that the natural law^s, 
in as far as they are known and admitted, ought 
to he declared positive, and to guide the actions 
of man. No one, therefore, should endeavor to 
make laws, but only to discover those made oy 

t^ e Creator, to submit to them, when discovered, 

24* 



210 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

as to his will, and to dispose others to follow this 
example. 

Positive laws are (Jvided into Divine and Civil. 
The former are given by God, the latter by hu- 
man legislators. 

The question which naturally occurs is, whetner 
there ought to be differences between the natural, 
Divine, and civil codes. Hitherto thinking peo 
pie have not agreed, and the one makes war 
against the other; but I am of the decided opinion 
that mankind cannot become happy till the laws 
of the Creator are put into practice. To say 
that the revealed law is not the same as the natu- 
ral, is to suppose that God is not the Creator of 
mankind, or that he has been in contradiction 
with himself at different times. Such notions 
seem to me absurd, and I cannot admit any inter- 
pretation of the revealed law, which is evidently 
in contradiction with the real nature of man. 
Moreover, since man cannot create, he ought not 
to set himself up as an inventor of laws ; nor at- 
tempt to control the course of Providence, or coun- 
teract the nature of things. As already said, he 
should try to discover, and having discovered, to 
submit to the arrangements of the Creator with 
respect to his vegetative, affective, moral, and in 
tellectua. nature. 



DEriMTIUN OF LEGISLATION. 211 

Civil legislation is necessarily divided into dif- 
ferent branches, but they ought all to have con- 
stantly only one and the same aim, and to be the 
resuH of one and the same spirit. Hitherto seU- 
ishness has been the principal object cf all civil 
legislation, and of every branch of it. Soldiers 
wish for war, and an opportunity of spoliation ; 
lawyers also have too constantly in view their own 
special advantages; and the members of the ordi- 
nary professions do not think it necessary to con- 
ceal, that the end and aim of all their exertions is 
selfishness. The same anti-social principle is vis- 
ible in all worldly affairs; and even the clergy, 
whose employment is to prepare man for eternity, 
too frequently show that selfish motives are in 
fact the mainsprings of their conduct. This over- 
whelming flood of selfishness must abate, or the 
general happiness of mankind remain an impossi- 
bility. There is only one permanent legislator, 
viz: the Creator; and whatever erects itself 
against his institutions, or deviates from them, is 
usurpation and folly. 

It is certainly a difficult task to discover clearly 
the law established by Nature, and to bring all 
branches of legislation into harmony with the Cre- 
ator's will. Happily, however, Nature has few 
laws; but it is of great importance to know that 
she never admits of an exception, and punishes se- 
verely every neglect. This subject being of the 
h'ghcst importance, anj" attempt to elucidate it 



212 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

cannot be considered as an idle occupation, and is 
the true object of a philosophical catechism, which 
I have published separately. 

In this summary view of criminal legislation, 
we may consider legislation in three points, viz . 
its aim ; the means necessary to attain it ; and the 
persons subject to the law. 

Mn of Legislation. 

Legislation begins with the sentiment of duty. 
In my opinion, the duty of man, according to the 
will of the Creator, consists in general Benevo- 
lence and Reverence. Hence the natural law re- 
quires more than the civil. Justice, according to 
the latter, is merely passive, viz : not to take from 
others that which belongs to them ; while, accord- 
ing to the former, we are obliged to do to others 
what we wish they sliould do to us. Thus Chris- 
tianity coincides with the natural law. Love thy 
neighbor as thyself, is the touchstone of all legis- 
lation as to its true aim. 

Jl'Icans to attain the Mm of Legislation. 

The second part of legislation concerns the 
means necessary to attain the proposed aim ; but 
this point is not yet accomplished. Either, there- 
fore, those who have it in their power do not ear- 
nestly wish ^jr it, or they have not intellect enough 



mea.ns of prevention. 273 

to choose the necessary means, or the general aim 
of legislation is not kept constantly in view. This 
field is extremely extensive, but withmjt the reach 
of my study. I shall confine myself to a fev^ re- 
marks, with respect to criminal and penal legisla- 
tion, which certainly has improved in modern 
times; first, with respect to the means of prevent- 
ing crime; and secondly, with respect to those 
of correcting criminals. 

There were ages when criminal legislators 
thought it their only duty to punish or to revenge 
themselves on those who were disobedient; the 
animal powers dictated the penal laws, and the 
feelings proper to man had no share in them. 
Now-a-days, it is admitted that the penal code 
ought to have for its objects the prevention of 
offences against the v/elfare of society, the correc- 
tion of those who have failed in their duty, and 
securing the community against incorrigible mem- 
bers. This aim is laudable; but as it is not at- 
tained, we are led to conclude that the means em- 
ployed to effectuate that purpose are not the best 
that might be chosen. 

Various kinds of punishments have been, and 
are inflicted, in order to deter men from commit- 
ting criminal actions. Malefactors are deprived 
of their personal liberty, and are confined to prison, 
for a shorter or longer period ; some even for 
life. They are treated with more or less severity ; 



274 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

gome remain idle ; others are condemned to hard 
work. Some are exiled or transported ; others 
put to death'l 

Experience, however, shows, that punishments 
alone do not produce the desired effect. Even 
at an execution for stealing, pickpockets are 
sometimes busy committing their depredations. I 
do not say that punishments are useless ; I only 
say, that they by themselves are not sufficient to 
prevent faults and crimes. Hence governments 
must have recourse still to other means. To 
choose these means correctly, it is necessary to 
discover the causes of criminal actions, for crimes 
will cease to be committed as soon as their causes 
are removed. 

The most important way of preventing crime, 
is that of improving mankind by every possible 
means, and especially by those spoken of in the 
preceding pages on education in general, and on 
that of nations in particular, ^^et the inferior 
races, whose actions are stigmatized by crimes or 
disorderly living, be prevented, as much as possi- 
ble, from propagation ; for it is a fact well known 
to those who have attended to the subiect, that 
' the organs of the animal passions, like those of the 
other faculties of the mind, are hereditary. More- 
over, let ignorance, idleness, intenjperancc, and 
poverty, w^hich are the principal causes of crime,, 
be prevented, and there will be little occasion for 
prisons. 



MEANS OF PREVENTION. 275 

In the General View to this work, nave con- 
sidered the great influence of ignorance on the 
moral conduct of man. Instruction, indeed, will 
greatly improve the human character, and the fa- 
cility of acquiring it in our days is a great bless- 
ing to mankind. It is therefore the duty and in- 
terest of wise and paternal governments to diffuse 
instruction as widely as possible, according to the 
capacities of the people, and according to local 
and particular situations; and whoever wishes to 
promote the moral conduct of mankind, and in 
sure their happiness, will favor public institutions 
for useful information. But knowledge is not 
virtue, and more attention than hitherto has been 
given, must be paid to the moral improvement 
of mankind. 

It is both more effectual towards promoting the 
welfare of society, and more agreeable, to correct 
morals, than to punish crimes. To that end it 
ought to be a serious aim with governments, to 
adopt means to exclude idleness and intemperance 
from society. Children should be accustomed to 
sobriety, and the practice of intemperance despised, 
and represented as degrading a sensible being. 
Every person found intoxicated in the streets 
should be taken up and confined fcr twenty-four 
hours, and fed on bread and water. 

Persons when drunk are deprived of the use of 
their reason, and often inclined to abuse their aui- 



276 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

♦ rnal propensities ; and hence the v/elfare ofs 
ciet/ requires them to be placed in a sitiiati(iAi 
v/here they can do no harm, and which may con- 
tribute to their correction. The criminal records 
of every country bear evidence of flagitious crimes 
committed., and much misery inflicted, of which 
drunkenness was the proximate cause. Govern- 
ments are therefore wrong in licensing number- 
less ale-houses and gin-shops, and in afic)rding 
great facility of pawning. 

In the Chapter on National Education, I have 
already said, that in a well regulated state, no 
poverty ought to be seen, and no mendicity toler- 
ated ; that each citizen ought to exercise a pro- 
fession, and each beggar to be shut up, and to be 
forced to work in public employments ; that char- 
ity is misapplied, and idleness rewarded, if in- 
dustrious people be obliged to support the poor. 
This subject, being of the utmost importance, de- 
serves a particular examination, and the repetition 
of some ideas does not seem to be out of place. 
The law obliging the rich to nourish the poor, is 
an indirect infringement of personal liberty, and 
in opposition to the basis of a free government, 
which admits private property, and encourages 
every one to use his talents, in as far as is con- 
sistent with the general happiness of the nation. 
The poor laws encroach on this right, and do 
harm to society. They in fact hold out to the 
profligate, the idle, and the imbecile, an invitation 



MEANS OF PREVENTION. 211 

Co net without regard to the consequences of the 
actions, and promise them, that if they are over- 
taken by the calamities which nature has attache 
to heedless conduct, the virtuous and considerate 
shall be made to bear the burden for them. 

If the poor, on account of their right to per- 
sonal hberty, cannot be prevented from marrying., 
the rich, for the same reason, cannot be forced to 
nourish them. It is an infrinsf-ement of the ner- 
sonal Hberty of an industrious citizen, to be com- 
pelled to support a lazy drone. If the poor must 
be permitted to marry, after the consequences are 
pointed out to them, then, at least, let every one 
be equally free ; let him who gets children pro- 
vide for their subsistence; and let him who labors 
reap the whole fruits of his own industry. 

But, it may still be said, that whoever lives has 
a right to the prolongation of his days, and that, 
hence, the necessitous must not be allowed to 
perish. Strictly speaking, there is no doubt that 
those who exist have a right to partake in what- 
ever nature produces. But civil laws are destmed 
to keep order, and to regulate property. Now, I 
am willing to admit, that humanity calls upon us 
to preserve those who actually exist; but it ap- 
pears to me to be impossible permanently to ame 
liorate the condition of the poor, except by pre- 
venting them, by some means or other, from 
excessive propagation. In the first f^ace, It is a 
25 



278 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

general law in nature, and it holds good .n the 
case of mankind, as well as in every other species 
cf animals, that every germ produced is not per- 
mitted to prosper and to multiply. As things are 
now managed, however, the best and most con- 
siderate of the race, are those who are most 
restrained from multiplying ; because they see {he 
evils, and endeavor to avoid them, while the 
worthless and unreflecting indulge their propen- 
sities without fear, and fill the world with misery 
This is exactly the reverse of what it ought to be 
Moreover, for the sake of general order, sailors 
and soldiers are prohibited from living in matri- 
mony, and why should not the same liberty be 
taken with the poor ? If they can show that they 
have the means of supporting a family, they are 
no longer poor, and the interdict would not apply 
to them. Many things are forced upon, as well 
as interdicted to individuals, for the sake of gen- 
eral happiness ; and this being the principal aim 
of society, I cannot conceive a reason why the ab- 
ject poor may not be hindered from marrying, 
for the general good, just as they are excluded, 
for the same reason, from directing the govern- 
ment. 

T'ne .aw snoUxd narmonize with the manners 
and morals of the day, the punishment proper 
tioned to the crime, and no hope left to the crim 
ina. to be pardoned. 



MEANS OF pnEvi:r,-TioN. 279 

Finally, the surest and most iinivei'sal fiienns 
of preventing crimes, would be, if selfisliness 
could be made subservient to general, benevo- 
lence, and if morality could become the leaflinvr 
aim among all nations ; — then the kingdom oi' 
Heaven would in fact arrive. The influence of 
this principle cannot yet be felt by mankind m! 
large, and many niay therefore say, Why, thcFi, 
do you speaK of it ? I ansv/er, Because it appears 
to m.e that the arrangements of nature admit of 
such a state, and that men require only to under- 
stand and practice her laws, to bring it aboir ; 
and as the tendency of the mind is to approxi- 
mate towards truth, and to appreciate it when 
discovered, I am not w^ithout hope, that the time 
may come, when the higher sentiments shall pre 
vail over the lower propensities, and benevolence 
over selfishness. Truth, whether admitted or re- 
jected, is and remains always truth. At all events 
no encouragement should be given to the abuse 
of the lower feelings, nor any facility offered to 
commit crimes. Bigamy, for instance, and seduc- 
tion, are facilitated by the permission of marrying 
without a certificate of any kind. 

I am convinced, that m proportion as the pre- 
ceding means are neglected or attended to, offences 
and crimes will be committed ov prevented ; and 
that by applying them in practice, manknid will 
improve their condition more than by punishing 
malefactors, and praying the Heavenly Fathef 



280 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

for his assistance, while they neglect the natura 
means of preventing crimes, and producing good. 
The blessing of God will follow as soon as we sub- 
tnit to his laws ; but prayers for it, while we con- 
temn them, are impious and absurd. Prisons are 
not become useless by building churches and by 
the influence of Bible and tract societies. How- 
ever, I do not mean to say, that Christianity is in- 
effectual in preventing crimes ; I only maintain 
that all means, natural and supernatural, should 
be employed. 

JSTatural means of correcting Malefactors. 

Let us now examine how far the second point 
of criminal legislation, viz. the correction of mal- 
efactors, has been attained. Experience shows, 
that punishments alone do not correct delinquents, 
any more than they prevent disorders, and that 
the common way of treating criminals depraves 
rather than improves them. This truth is more 
and more perceived, and some practical results 
have already taken place, which have proved 
highly beneficial ; and I hope that the good etrect 
they produce will encourage their adoption in all 
countries. One great subject of regret, however, 
remains, that the nature of man is not sufficiently 
understood, and that in consequence, many modi- 
fications of treatment, which • individual, malefac- 
tors require, are entirely overlooked. 



MEANS OF COIlRECnCN. 281 

Formerly, malefactors of all kinds, yo'LHig" and 
old, persons seduced by strong- temptation into 
crimes, even those who were only accused and de- 
tained on suspicion, and inveterate vilhiins, were 
shut up together. In many prisons they were 
idle, or if they had some occupation they were 
generally unprofitable, sometimes too easy, at 
other times too hard, often dirty and unwhole- 
some ; and because punishment, and not reform, 
was the principal motive of confining prisoners, 
they were treated with neglect. Their food was 
not sufficient, and sometimes noxious. Prisons 
were sometimes erected in damp and unwhole- 
some situations. The prisoners were, on account 
of ill treatment, aflTected with various cutaneous 
and scrophulous diseases, with blindness, dysen- 
tary, consumption, typhus, &c. Such aggrava- 
tions of punishment were too severe, and against 
i,he intention of the law. 

This error has been felt, but in our days men 
are falling" into an opposite extreme. In many 
prisons there is too much comfort, and not pun- 
ishment enough. Here and there they become 
houses of reward. They perhaps appear still 
uncomfortable to the rich administrators, but they 
afford more comfort than the greater number of 
criniinals are accustomed to. The prisoners are 
clothed, seciu'ed against the inclemency of the 
vveather, have a good bed to rest on, and are bet 

ter nourished than at home. Soixe persons, in 

25* 



2S2 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

deed, commit faults in order to be taken into them 
Such prisons fail to effect their purpose. To be 
confined in a prison, ought always to be a disa- 
greeable situation m one way or another. A 
proper arrangement would be, to have in each 
prison a variety of apartments, affording different 
degrees of comfort and accommodation, and to 
put every atrocicis criminal into the lowest first, 
and let him rise to the higher as his moral im- 
provement proceeded. This would be a practical 
illustration of the great natural truth, That a state 
of vice is one of misery, and a state of morality 
one of comfort and enjoyment. Prisons construct- 
ed on such principles would no doubt require to 
be extensive ; and they would, in their first erec- 
tion, be expensive. But whether would a nation 
derive oTeater ultimate advantage from a sufficient 
number of such establishments, to correct and re- 
strain the vicious part of her population, or from 
a victory in a war about a sugar island ? And 
the sums consumed by the nations of Europe in 
prosecuting quarrels which have no natural foun- 
dation, and in inflicting misery on each other, 
would have placed a penitentiary in every depart- 
ment of every kingdom ! Such are the results of 
the dominion of the animal ove~ the man in hu- 
man affairs. 

There are still other causes- which prevent the 
correction of prisoners. Prisoners are taken in 
ignorant, idle, poor, ana disorderly, and are dis* 



MEANS OF COllRECTION. 283 

missed in th.^ same state, or perhaps more instruct- 
ed in vice. Being* together, they are induced to 
converse ; and even Vv^here this is prohibited when 
at VN^ork, they take advantage of every moment, 
when the overseer is absent, to do so, or they find 
in the yard an opportunity of becoming acquainted 
with their companions. They tell each other their 
crimes and tricks ; and every new comer, especially 
if his natural dispositions harmonize with that 
kind of instruction, profits by such lessons, and 
his corruption is soon complete. In a short time 
the novice is accustomed to live intimately with 
the outcasts of mankind, becomes one of them- 
selves, and then all shame and bashfulness disap- 
pear. In this manner, according to the saying of 
the criminals themselves, prisons are schools where 
all sorts of vices are taught. The malefactors be- 
come friends, and form projects, to be executed 
when they are liberated ; they organize bands, and 
prepare to pursue with greater audacity their for- 
mer criminal life. 

The greater number of malefactors who are lib- 
erated, are incapable of gaining their livelihood 
Their immoral habits, their idleness, and even 
sometimes their intemperance, have been ;jicreased 
during their confinement, and nothing can be m.ore 
natural, than that they should yield again to their 
animal dispositions. Na}^, some are forced to con- 
tinue tiieir depraved manner of living, to escape 
dvinsf of hunger. This, for instance, is the case 



284 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

with"those who are branded, and publicly dishon 
ored. Who will give employment to such indi- 
viduals ? Who will work with them in the same 
shop ? If it seem necessary to brand, in order to 
know whether a criminal has already committed a 
crime, let it be done where the mark may easily 
be concealed. 

Another manner of treating prisoners, without 
correcting them, and which is very illiberal to- 
wards neighboring countries, is that of sending 
all malefactors over the boundaries. Such a 
course of proceeding should be only permitted in 
cases of political errors. In other cases, it is say 
ing to a malefactor, Do not steal in my house, 
but go to my neighbor's, and do what you 
please. 

The common way of treating criminals gives 
rise to another injustice against society. Accord 
ing to the common mode of conducting jailS; 
those who. by their criminal actions, disturb the 
general peace, live at the expense of the quiet and 
honest citizens. It is indeed shameful, that male- 
factors, who are commonly stout fellows, and in 
the best years of their lives, should not gain the 
necessary means of subsistence, while manufac- 
turers get immensely rich by the employment ol 
other people. 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 285 

Thus, it is high lime to rectify such abuses. 
The aini of all prisons "for malefactors, wno are 
to be sent back into society, ought to be only one 
and tlie same, viz. correction. But, then, in order 
to change the houses of Perversion, which all com 
mon prisons are, into houses of Correction, other 
regulations must be put into execution, and the 
prisoners should be kept till, in all probability, 
they are corrected. 

1 repeat that these ideas are not new. but they 
must be repeated till they are practised every 
where. First, then, let the causes which produce 
offences and crimes be removed. Ignorant people 
who are taken up, should receive instruction, and 
their attention should particularly be directed to 
their duty in society. They must be treated as 
grown up children, whose education has been 
neglected. It will be n.ore difficult to change 
their habits than those of children, but they are 
more capable of feeling the difference of motives, 
and their will may exercise a greater influence on 
their actions. 

Solitary confinement is one of the most effectual 
means of improvement. Let it not be said that 
the punishment is too hard, and may derange the 
mental dispositions of some criminals. This will be 
exceedingly rare, but it will corre^-t the greater 
number of them. Let the directors of prisons 
be competent judges of human perversity, and let 



28G CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

them be allowed to modify the severity of pun- 
ishment according to the individual charact^ers of 
criminals. Let even the committee of overseers at- 
tend to this regulation, and give relief, if necessary. 

Idleness ought not on any account to be toler- 
ated in prisons. Those who know a trade, may 
continue to exercise it ; and those who do not 
know, may learn one. The better heads may su- 
perintend the inferior, and become their masters 
and teachers. Every prisoner should be compelled 
to work to pay his expenses. If they gain more 
than is necessary to supply their wants, and if 
they have placed their fellow creatures in misery, 
those, for instance, who have stolen or destroyed 
the whole property of a family, ought to be obliged 
to indemnify* them as far as possible. Moses order 
ed the thieves to be slaves for a certain period of 
indemnity. Others, who gain above their personal 
wants, may be allowed to turn it to the profit of 
their family, or may put it aside to receive it at 
their exit. Prisons should be open to the gratui- 
tous inspection and superintendance of intelligent 
and benevolent individuals of the community, or 
if euch cannot be found, the prisoners might work 
to pay inspectors. The confinement should last 
till the occasional causes which gave rise to the 
offence are removed, and till amendment is proba- 
ble ; and on being released, the .prisoners are, for 
a certain time, to be obser*~ed by the inspectors or 
the police. If each large town were divided into 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 287 

districts, and several of the respectable inhabitants 
of each district would act as inspectors, and visit 
the released prisoners who come to settle in it, 
they might save many from relapsing into crime. 

The system of confining prisoners indefinitely 
till corrected, certainly supposes perfect justice in 
the management of the jails ; otherwise persons 
might be detained in prison from improper mo- 
tives, and much longer than necessary for amend- 
ment. Such an abuse ought to be most carefully 
guarded against ; and, perhaps, the best of all 
checks to its existence, might be found in the 
system of open and gratuitous inspection by benev- 
olent individuals above recommended. The pub- 
lic could never conspire to do injustice to an in- 
dividual ; and while his confinement was contin- 
tinued under their eye, there would be very little 
chance of its being unjustly and unnecessarily pro- 
longed. Or, the period of confinement might be 
mentioned in the sentence, leaving power to the 
inspectors, or some properly constituted authori^ 
ties, to shorten it on proofs of amendment. 

The efficacy of prisons established according to 
sound principles, is no longer speculative. Penn 
first showed it in a practical way at Philadelphia. 
Several States in America, and several govern- 
ments in Europe have followed his example, and 
the result has perfectly answered the'r oxpecta- 
lions. Relapses of malefactors dismissed from 



288 CORPtECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

prisons and common houses of correction are usual , 
while in the houses of correction, conducted ac- 
cordinir to the new ulan, a small number are con- 
fined a second tim.c, particularly when they are 
kept for some time. 

The new method of treating crimimis is advan- 
tageous also in other respects to society. The 
prisoners gain more than they consume, and being 
corrected, they no longer injure orderly, nor se- 
duce innocent persons. 

I cannot help mentioning a singular idea which 
prevails in different places, where means of public 
education are provided for, but where masters 
shall be required, subject to a committee, to expel 
from school any pupil wlio shall manifest an habit- 
ual and determined neglect of his duties. 

This advice does not seem to be conformable to 
Christianity. Jesus did not come to call the 
righteous, but the sinners to repentance. The par- 
able of the prodigjd son, too, is given in a quite 
opposite spirit. I think that such individuals 
sliould 1)0 particularly taken care of, and not let 
loose upon society and exposed to all sorts of crimi- 
nal teujptations. Might they not be confined to a 
house of reform and accustomed to regular habits? 
The house (n reform of Juvenile delinquents at 
Boston, in the hands of the llev. iMr. Wells, fur- 
nishes a convincing proof, what nay be done with 



MEANS or CORRECTION. 289 

Mich yonnor offenders. Blessed be those who save 
their fellow creatures from the precipice of per- 
dition, and turn them to the path of righteousness. 

Tt is i:nportnnt to understand human nature, 
and the modified characters of the malefictors, 
in order to treat them properly, because every 
measure which the natural constitution of each 
individual renders available to produce amend- 
ment^ may require to be employed. A knowledg-e 
of this kind will confirm and render still more 
useful the practical views of several intelligent 
benefactors of mankind. The reader may con- 
sult John Howard on Prisons and Houses of Cor- . 
rection ; the work on the Prisons of Philadelphia, 
by a European (Duke of Liancourt ; ) Tht'orie 
des Paines et des Recompen..es, par J^^remie Ben 
tham ; An inquiry, whether Crime and Misery 
are produced or prevented by our present system 
of Prison-discipline, by Thom. Buxton ; the An- 
nual Reports of the Board of Managers of the 
Prison-discipline Society in America, &c. ; and 
he will find in Phrenology, a most satisfactory 
theory to explain and to direct the farther appli- 
cation of the practical maxims of these and ether 
authors. 

Treatment of Incorng-ibk Offenders. 

I come to the third point of penal legislation, 

viz. that which has for its aim to secure society 

26 ^ 



290 CCRRECTICH OF MALEFACTORS. 

acrainst incorrio^ible individuals. I shall not enter 
into the vain discussions on the right of society to 
inflict capital punishment. I take it for granted, 
that society ig entitled to cut off one of its limbs 
for the sake of the happiness of the rest, if there 
be no better, means of securing that end ; but 
death, as the last evil, ought not to be inflicted till 
all other means have proved ineffectual. 

Some crimes are punished with death, in order 
to prevent their repetition. All judicious writers, 
however, speak with regret of the frequency of 
capital punishment, and deny that it has this par- 
ticular effect. Death is not equally frightful to 
every one. Criminal legislators judge of others 
according to their own feelings ; they fear death, 
hence they think that all men do the same. Ex- 
perience, however, shows that to many persons 
death, when contemplated at a distance and as a 
contingency, is not appalling. Nay, by some, 
even the immediate inflicton of it appears to be 
regarded as a small evil. The unfortunate wish 
for it, in order to be delivered from their pains. 
Those in despair destroy themselves, and many 
become the martyrs of ambition and religion. 
The laws, themselves, suppose that the loss of 
life is little in the eyes of many criminals, for 
means are taken to prevent them from putting an 
end to their days, which they would do rather 
than be confined for life. It is certain, that 
many criminals are not at all moved by the sen- 



mCORRIGIBLE CFFENDERS. 291 

tence of death, and that they go to the gallows 
with perfect calmness and resifirnation. Inveter- 
ate criminals commonly say, Dying is nothing, we 
must finish in that way. 

It appears to me- that there is no harm in de- 
livering society from viLains, particularly from 
those who are dangerous to the existence of others. 
A tree that brings Q)rth no fruit, is cut down and 
burnt ; a furious animal is killed ; and a danger- 
ous fellow may.^ on the same principle, be extir- 
pated. Yet I am also of opinion, that capital pun- 
ishment might be abolished, and replaced by other 
m.eans which would be more effectual to protect 
society. There is an inconsistency in the present 
practice of inflicting death as a punishment for a 
great variety of offences ; for certainly crimes dif- 
fering greatly in atrocity do not merit exactly the 
same retribution. If it be true that crimes must 
be judged of according to the perversity of the 
malefactor^ and according to the mischief which 
results from the offence ; and if it be established 
as an axiom, that a crime consists in the intention 
and not in the action ; all crimes which are at 
present capitally punished, cannot be considered 
as equal in guilt. A man who intentionally kills 
his benefactor, or another who kills one who has 
excited his jealousy and disturbed the peace of his 
fanuly ; an inexperienced girl who, in a moment 
of despair, destroys her offspring, the cause of her 
misery for life ; the horrid monster who strangles 



292 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

an old father to enjoy his inheritance tl^e sooner , 
the prostitute who assassinates the companions of 
her debauchery ; and the liighwayman, wliose 
whole life is only a succession of robberies and 
nmrders, who spreads desolation and devastation 
in whole districts, cannot be considered as equally 
giiilty. Either, therefore, the minor odencc* 
should be visited with a less punishment than 
death, or, to preserve consistency, the greater 
oflences should be followed by death aggravated 
by increased horrors ; a proposition at which even 
the sanguinary spirit of legislation would revolt. 
But as it is said, that death is the ultimate extent 
of judicial authority over malefactors, and that 
every punishment beyond it is cruelty, it ought 
not to be inflictcf] on individuals who miglu be pre- 
vented from doing evil by other means, such as 
confinement and education ; nor on those equally, 
w^ho are guilty in very different degrees, particu- 
larly since it does not prevent others from com 
mitting similar offences. 

If the proper means of education and correction 
were employed according to the law of i.ature, the 
injustice in criminal legislation, now mentioned, 
might be avoided ; and, indeed, there would soon 
be no occasion for capital punishment at all. 
Tliere ought to be a particidar establishment for 
those who are confined for life, i^egulfited by sound 
principles. It may be, found neces&ary to treat 



INCORIlIGinr.E OFFENDERS. 293 

some v/jth seventy, yet by far the greater number 
will be kept in order by less severity. 

Tlie idea of punishment is closely connected 
with that of the different decrees of ^yuilt. If the 
reformation of malefactors were the ])rincipal ob 
ject of the penal code, the possibility and means 
of correction would be the first object to be con 
sidered, and the extent of the guilt only the 
second. Punishment w^ould then be viewed as 
one of the means of correction, but all the others 
would likewise be examined and employed. The 
greater the villain, the more care would be taken 
to correct him. At the same time, it is natural to 
consider the different degrees of guilt. On this 
point, many ideas may be communicated which 
are not adequately understood by legislators, be- 
cause they are not sufficiently acquainted v%'ith 
human nature. 

It is scarcely possible for human intelligence to 
decide with perfect justice, in regard to the pre- 
cise extent of guilt and innocence in every par- 
ticular case. All the motives and causes which 
have determined a malefactor to commit a crime, 
cannot be known by man, and w^ithout such a 
knowledge, it is impossible to form a perfectly 
just estimate of the exact degree of guilt. Sucli 
a judgment must be remitted to Him alone, wha 
is all-wise. Although, however, human wisdonr 

has limits, it must extend itself as far as possible 
2Q^ 



294 CORRECTION DF MALEFATORS. 

In penal legislation, extenuating" and aggravating 
motives are admitted; and indeed some indi- 
viduals, the fatuous and insane, are not held as 
answerable at all for their actions. In other cases, 
actions may be clearly illegal, which nevertheless 
admit of extenuating motives. I shall speak of 
several grounds of extenuation which appear to 
me to be founded in nature, but which nevertheless 
are not considered as such in different countries. 

ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WITHOUT GUILT. 

The first condition upon which a man is an- 
swerable for his actions, is that he. is free. Here 
I take it for granted, that my ideas on moral lib- 
erty, such as they are developed in The Philo- 
sophical Principles, Part II. of Phrenology, are 
known to the reader. Whenever moral liberty is 
wanting, there is no guilt. This is the case at 
those periods of life when the human faculties 
have not acquired strength enough to exercise 
will, VIZ. in infancy, or when the influence of will 
is suppressed by the state of disease. In all coun- 
tries, a certain age is fixed v/hen punishment may 
be inflicted. It is also admitted, that the dis- 
eased state of the manifestations of the mind ex- 
cludes culpability ; but the extent and appear- 
ances 01 this state are not sufficiently under* 
stood 



ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF fDIOTS. 295 

J. ■—Illegal adlons of Idiots. 

idiocy is Co'nplete or Partial : Instances of the 
ronner kind zre rare ; of the latter numerous. 
Complete idiotism is easily distinguished, and does 
not require a detailed elucidation; but the com- 
mon manner of jrdging of incomplete idiotism 
is frequently very erroneous. Legislators and 
judges are not yet convinced that there are various 
faculties of the mmd, and that the manifestations 
of each power depend on a particular part of the 
brain ; that one or several organs may be very 
active, while others are in a state of idiotism. 
These facts, however, which, although not gen- 
erally admitted, are true, explain vvhy, in some 
individuals, the perceptive faculties and the infe- 
rior propensities may be very active, while the 
powers of the moral will are silent. Such indi- 
viduals are like animals, and cannot be moved by 
moral motives. They act only according to the 
feelings which they possess, without being able to 
choose between motives. Pinel speaks of an 
idiot who had the most determinate inclination to 
imitate the voice and gesture of all persons around 
her. it is observed, says Fodf.re, ''That by an 
iiiexpliiable particularity several cretins, endowed 
witli SI) little intelligence, are born wiih a par- 
ticular talent for drawing, musical composition, 
rhyming, &c. I have seen," continues he, "sev- 
eral of them, who learned, by themselves, to play 



296 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS 

pretty well on the org-an or harpsichord others, 
v^ithoiit having- had any master, knew how to 
mend watches and to make various mechanical 
instruments. This phenomenon probably results 
from the more perfect org-anization of the organ on 
which such or such an art depends, and not at all 
from the understanding*. For, these individuals 
do not know how to read books which treat of the 
principles of the respective arts; they are even 
disturbed at being- desired to learn the principles." 
(Trate du Goitre et du Cretinisme. Paris, 1800, 
p. 133.) 

I have mentioned many cases in my work on 
Insanity (p. 120 — 133. ;) and in that on Phrenol- 
ogy, where I speak of destructiveness and acqui- 
sitiveness. Idiots, although mischievous, are not 
objects of punishment, yet it is rash to say, tliat 
all means of correction are useless. Tiiey ought, 
at all events, to be prevented from doing harm to 
others; and as they cannot be left to themselves, 
there ousfht to be houses of security for such un 
fortunate individuals. 

There are cases, in which it is extremely difti 
cult to decide whether there is or is not will 
'^Persons," says Dr. Rush, (Diseases of the Mind, 
p. 26S.) ^'who are inordinately fie voted "to the use 
of ardent spirits, are irreclaimahle by all the con- 
siderations wliich domestic obligations, friendship, 
reputation, property, and sometimes even by those 



ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS. 297 

fi^hich reJo^ion and the love of life can sntrcest to 
t^herii. An habifual drunkard, when strongly 
urged by one of his friends to leave off drinking, 
said, Were a keg of rum in one corner of a room, 
and were a cannon constantly discharging bails 
between me and it, I would not refrain from pass- 
ing before that cannon, in order to get at the run). 

*' There are many instances," continues Dr. 
Rush, "of persons of sound understanding, and 
some of uncommon talents v/ho are alTected with 
the lying disease. Persons thus diseased, can 
neither speak the truth upon any subject, nor tell 
the same story twice in the same way, nor de- 
scribe any thing as it has appeared to other people 
Their falsehoods are seldom calculated to injure 
any body but themselves, being, for the most 
part, of an hyperbolical or boasting nature, and 
not injurious to the characters and property of 
others. That it is a corporeal disease I infer from 
its sometimes appearing in mad people, who are 
remarkable for veracity in the healthy state of 
their minds, several instances of which I have 
known in the Pennsylvanian hospital. Persons 
affected with this disease, are often amiable in 
their tempers and manners, and sometimes benev- 
olent and charitable in their dispositions. Lying, 
as a vice, is said to be incurable. The same thing 
may be said of it as a disease wiien it appears in 
adult life." 



298 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS " 

The time will come v/hen several malefactors 
will be declared insane, who are now punished. 
The only difference, however, will perhaps be in 
the mm of their confinement, viz. they will be 
shut up, in order to be prevented from doing mis- 
chief, instead of being shut up with the view of 
making atonement to justice. The lav/s of Nature 
are severe, but they are just. General order must 
never be allowed to suffer for the sake of one or 
several individuals. Even these persons, how- 
ever, must, as much as possible, be allowed to en- 
joy their natural rights. In a prison at Berlin 
(Stadtvogtey,) we found a boy of an unfortunate 
cerebral organization ; the forehead was low and 
narrow, depressed imimediately above the eye- 
brows, much hollov/ed sidewards above the eyes, 
but large and prominent at the temples. His 
countenance indicated slyness and malice. Dr. 
Gall ?aid, that such individuals should not be 
left at liberty, but ought to be kept in an establish- 
ment for security. The registers, when referred 
to, pro\ed that the boy, from infancy, had shown 
tiie most obstinate propensity to stea^. Such in- 
dividuals, indeed, become more incurable upon 
every relapse. In such cases, all means of cor- 
rection should be tried first, and if these are found 
fruitless, it should then be declared lawfu *:o de- 
tain them for life, but to treat them with hu- 
manity. They ought to be considered as persons 
affected with a disease, pregnant with danger to 
gociety. In general, nothing but amendment of 



ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF MADMEN. 299 

conduct should entitle malefactors to return to the 
society which they have disturbed. 

Intellectual idiotism is commonly understood, 
but there is also a moral idotism. Some indi- 
viduals may possess intellect and strong animal 
feelings, but very weak moral sentiments, which 
seldom, if ever, enter into activity, so that such 
persons constantly follow their animal propensi- 
ties. They are deprived of sufficient moral mo- 
tives, and cannot be considered as accountable be- 
ings. Society has no other right but that ef pre- 
venting them from disturbing others. 

II. — Illegal actions of Madmen. 

•Madness is every where allowed to take away 
guilt, but its nature is not sufficiently understood. 
The most important points to be attended to are- 
that it maj^ be general or partial ; that the feel- 
ings as well as the intellectual faculties may be 
deranged, and that general and partial insanity 
may be continual or intermittent. General and 
continual madness is easily distinguished, but 
partial and intermittent insanity is less known 
than it ought to be. 

My ideas on these points are detailed in my 
work on Insanity, and I refer to it for a fuller de- 
velopment of the subject. Individuals under the 
involuntary influence of these faculties through 



6'00 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS* 

disease, are to be treated as patients and cured 
not as criminals to be punished. 



OK ILLEGAL ACTIONS WHICH ADMIT OF EXTENUATING 

MOTIVES. 

It is impossible to weigh exactly the motives 
which may produce illegal actions. In examining 
whether an action be just or unjust, we commonly 
think only whether it is conformable to the law 
or against it. Yet, as long as legislation intends 
to piniish, the degree of guilt attributable to the 
individual cannot be entirely overlooked ; for 
otherwise, an idiot who assassinates would be lia- 
ble to the punishment of a sane person ; in short, 
extenuating motives would not in any case be ad- 
mitted. 

Violent passions and affections, such as anger, 
fury, jealousy, rage, &c. are considered as a tran 
sient madness, and are justly admitted as extenu 
ating motives. — But it ought to be known, that 
some persons may feel internally an excessive ex 
citement of these affections, who restrain the out 
ward expressions of them ; nay, that such pei 
$ons sometimes suffer even more than those who 
manifest their anger externally, and who tear their 
hair or stamp with the feet, &C'. Shame, despaii, 
and many secret affections darken the spirit ot 
man, as much as sudden and violent passions ; and 



EXTENUATING iMOTIVES. 301 

they derange equally the state of health and the 
judgment. 

Moreover, the same exciting cause will act 
violently on one person, and scarcely make an 
impression on another, according to their natural 
constitutions. Certain kinds of food, principally 
liquors, excite differently the individual disposi- 
tions of different persons. Wine or brandy ren- 
ders one courageous and quarrelsome, another 
eloquent, sincere, amoroas, sorry, gay, &c. The 
highwayman, Peter Petri, a companion of 
ScHiNDERHANNEs, sccmed to be insensible in his 
common state ; but when he had taken several 
glasses of brandy, he behaved like a tiger, and 
attacked friends and enemies indiscriminately. 
We know the history of a woman who, after 
drinking some glasses of brandy, felt a strong in- 
voluntary desire to become an incendiary. Illegal 
actions done during drunkenness, at least the first 
time, should find in it an extenuating motive. 
The guilt is greater, if the effect of spirituous 
liquors be known, and if they be not avoided. 

The most intricate situation, with respect to ex- 
tenuating motives, is when one faculty in particular 
is extremely active in individuals. This may 
happen with regard to every power. If it be the 
case with a superior faculty, such as benevolence 
or reverence, the individual may be said to be for- 
tunate. 1 et, in the same way, every other feeling, 
27 



302 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

for instance, an insatiable desire of glory, may 
govern the whole conduct of some persons ; and 
again, every animal propensity may become exces- 
sively active. This state is not insanity ; the in- 
dividuals are able to distinguish the influence 
which excites them, and have power to restrain 
it, and are therefore answerable for their actions ; 
but their situation is an unfortunate one ; for they 
are called upon to maintain a dreadful struggle 
with their ruling propensity. I know of a family 
in which the desire to drink liquors is hereditary , 
the grandfather and the father have killed them- 
selves by hard drinking, the grandchild, when 
only five j^ears of age, manifested the same incli- 
nation. There are similar examples with respect 
to acquisitiveness and destructiveness. The ques- 
tion, then, is. Whether and how far the innate dis- 
positions, when in this manner excessively strong, 
are to be considered as extenuating motives ^ At 
all events, it is certain, that not only violent and 
sudden affections, but also various other excite- 
ments ought to be considered as extenuating ; and 
I have no doubt that they will be admitted by 
degrees, as they are understood 

Let us examine a few examples, among the in- 
finite number which might be quoted. A first 
lieutenant was inspired with a passion for the wife 
of a private in his company. This virtuous 
woman steadily refused his propositions and im- 
portunities, without saying a word of it to he'* 



• ^ EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 302 

husband. One day, at exercise, the lieutenant 
treated tlie husband very ill, and ordered him 
several times to be bastinadoed. As the husband 
complained, he was treated as stubborn and mu- 
tinous, and forced to be silent by fifteen other 
blows. His unfortunate wife told him the inten- 
tion of the lieutenant. From Thursday to Sun- 
'lay he meditated and projected the death of his 
wife and his children. He admonished his wife 
to confess, and to go to the communion table. He 
did the same. He was always mild, a good father, 
and an excellent husband, but during these days 
he excelled in these qualities. On Sunday, after 
dinner, he proposed to his wife to take a walk 
with him. He conducted her under the sallow- 
trees, planted along the glacis of the citadel at 
Breslaw, and, whilst caressing her most tenderly, 
he pierced her heart with a dagger. He went 
back in haste, that he might not be prevented 
from sending his two children into heaven. He 
iioped to find in them intercessors before God. 
He killed them with a little axe ; placed them on 
Ihe bed, their arnis crossed ; went then directly 
to the guard, with a countenance of satisfaction, 
and told what he had 3one. '• Now," added he, 
" may the Lieutenant of *** make love to my wife. 
She and her children are secured against seduc- 
tion and dishonor. They will be obliged to me 
.for their happiness, and pray for me in heaven.'" 
The ourt-martial, at Breslaw in Silesia, did not 
think ;f extenuating motives, but even aggravated 



S04 CORRECTION OP MALEFACTORS.^ 

his punishment, by depriving him in prison, and 
at the moment of execution, of the presence of a 
clergyman who might encourage and prepare him 
for death. 

The work of Crichton on Insanity contains 
Beveral examples of this kind. "Catharine 
Hanslerin, forty-five years old, was an inhabitant 
of Donauworth. She had been twelve years 
married to a man of a severe and unfeeling temper, 
and, excepting a fever, and some slight causes 
of indisposition, was a tolerably healthy woman. 
About the end of the year 1785, she was detected 
in stealing milk in the village where she lived. 
She solicited, in the most earnest manner, that 
the circumstance might be concealed from Rer 
husband, whom she dreaded. It was promised, 
but not observed. At first, lie w;is told of it in an 
obscure way^ but he afterwards discovered the 
whole truth. 

" The detection of her fiwul \u u\e a deep im- 
pression on her mind, not only on account of her 
good name, but also on account of the treatment 
she was likely to receive from her husband. In 
consequence of this, she became low in spirits, 
and melancholy. She had confessed, but it did 
not relieve lier mind. She prayed often, without 
knowing what she said. She had been frequently 
seizec/ with violent headaches, during which she 
was not conscious of w^iat she did 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 306 

" Her husband, when he heard of her stealing", 
heat her severely. After this ill treatment, she 
went to bed, trembling" for fear, and dreading 
worse usage the next day. Her daughter, a little 
girl seven years old, came to her bedside, and 
prayed with her. She had formed the resolutioii 
of leaving her husband, and asked her daughter, 
if she would stay with her father ? This the girl 
refused to do, as she was afraid of him. After 
praying devoutly, early in the morning she left 
her husband's house, and took her daughter along 
with her, and also her infant, that was only two, 
months and a half old.. As she was about to de- 
part, she again asked her daughter if she would 
not rather live with her father ? The girl an- 
swered she would rather die. The thoughts which 
„his answer occasioned in the mother's mind, the 
misery and distress which surrounded her, the 
fear of what might happen to her children in case 
she died, and, at the same tim.e, her own ardent 
v/ish to finish her existence, all these thoughts 
caused, her to form the barbarous resolution of 
drowning them. 

*' The infant she took in her arms, and being 
arrived at the banks of the Danube, she caused 
her daughter to kneel down and pray to God 
to deserve a good death. She then tied the in- 
fant in the arn-s of the girl, blessed them by 
makinq: the s'lirii of the cross on them, and threw 

both into the river. She afterwards returned to 

27* . 



306 CORRECTION OP MALBiPACTORS. 

V- 

the village, told what she had done, and was ex 
ecuted." 

"A young woman, twenty-three years >fage, 
was sent to the house of correction at Onolbach, 
1755. She was received with blows and stripes. 
This treatment made so deep an impression on her 
mind, that she began to detest life, and in order 
to get rid of it, determined to commit murder. 
She thought that by so doing, she would have time 
allowed her for repentance, which she knew she 
could not have, were she to destroy herself. She 
premeditated her design in cold blood, and ac- 
complished it on another woman in the following 
manner. 

*' One Sunday she complained of being ill, and 
requested to be excused from attending Divine 
service. A simple, and half fatuous girl was 
allowed to attend her. She convinced this girl 
that there was no hope of their being relieved 
from their present miserable situation, but by 
their both consenting to die, and she proposed to 
the girl to kill her first. The girl was soon recon- 
ciled to the proposition, and the only condition 
she made was, that her companion should not hurt 
her. She stretched herself out, and the murder- 
ess accompl shed the horrid crime of cutting the 
girl's thr)at. 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 80*7 

•'Upon being asked, in the court of justice, 
what conl.l have induced her to commit so liorrid 
a deed, as the murder of her fellow prisoner ? she 
answered. Fear of the sharp blows and pain she 
knew she had tc sustain in the house of correction. 
She thought within herself. If I take away my 
own life, my soul is lost for ever ; but if I murder 
another, though in that case I also must forfeit 
my life, still I shall have time to repent, and God 
will pardon me. When she was asked. Whether 
she had no hatred against the deceased, or if she 
had ever received any ill-usaj^e from her .-* she an- 
swered, That the deceased had never done her 
any injury, and if any thing vexed the deceased, 
she always came to her to make her complaints. 
Upon being asked, if she slept well after having 
committed so horrid an act ? she answered. That 
she prayed to God before going to bed, and »lept 
v/ell, and when she awoke, she again prayed. She 
seemed perfectly calm and collected during her 
trial, until it was explained to her, that she had 
drawn down the eternal wrath of God upon her- 
self. Then she wept bitterly. The physician 
ascribed the crime to despair, and tccdium vitas, ; 
but the law would not understand the hint." 

There is a similar fact mentioned in the journal 
which is published at Leipzig, under the title 
Zeiiung fur die eleganiie Welt, (N. 92. 1st. Aug. 
1805.) Amongst a great number of malefactors 
confined in the prison of Torgav, and presented 



308 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS 

to Dr Gall, there was a woman who had drown- 
ed her child, a boy of four years old. Dr. Gall 
examined her head, then took the hand of Profes- 
sor LoDER, who was present, and put it upon the 
organ of Philoprogenitiveness, that he might ex- 
amine its size. When the prisoner had retired, 
jall said that that organ was great in this w jman, 
the organ of Murder (as it was then called) small, 
and that, in general, her head was well organized. 
He desired to be informed of her character and 
capacities, principally with respect to her crime. 
The magistrates said t:iat this person was born of 
poor parents, whom she had lost early, and that 
she had received no education. When grown up, 
she became a servant in the village. Every one 
was satisfied with her conduct and behaviour. Un- 
fortunately she was seduced, and had a child. 
The being to whom she gave life was the cause of 
her misery. She was dismissed from service, and 
no one would receive her on account of her child. 
For a long time she did not know how to endure 
her situation. She loved her infant with the 
most tender affection, thoug'h she had reason to 
detest his existence. Finally, a poor peasant and 
his wife had pity on her ; they kept the child ir 
their house, and took care of him for three years. 
The mother foiuid a place, and her behaviour wa» 
vory exemplary. 

The child increased, and gave great satisfaction 
to the adopting father, who loved hinr very rnuch 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 309 

This was enough for bad tongues to say, that the 
peasant was his father. Satisfied with his con- 
scious innocence, he despised the wicked imputa- 
tion, but this was not the case with his wife. To 
keep peace r home, he was obhged to give the 
boy back to le mother. She begged her master 
and mistres in vain to keep her ; in vain she 
represented o them, that she had served with ex- 
emplary assiduity and fidelity. She was dis- 
charged in the most severe season. All the wealthy 
peasants treated her with the same severity. She 
sold whatever she possessed to feed her child and 
herself. He decayed through cold and misery. 
In this situation she prayed to Heaven to let both 
lierself and him die. Her maternal affection was 
overpowered by an internaP voice, which said 
alo'.id, that the only means of saving them was the 
destruction of her child. She preferred to see 
him die suddenly, and in a moment of despair, 
r?he carried him to the River Elbe, and precipita- 
ted him into the stream. Exhausted, she fainted 
away, and was found in this situation. As soon 
as she recovered her senses, she accused herself. 
During her detention before trial, namely, a whole 
year, she behaved very well ; she manifested dis- 
tinct and deep repentance of her deed, which, 
however, she did not consider as a crime. The 
cler^ryman, who visited her I>om time to time, 
said that she was ignorant, but that she was mild, 
and very doci.e. The superintendants gave ex 
cellent testinnnies of her good conduct. These 



510 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS, 

difTerent motives determined the Court of Appeals 
to change the first judgment, according to which 
she ought to have been beheaded, and they con- 
demned her to confinement fior life., without being 
severely treated. Here she learned to write and 
to read, and her whole conduct was orderly. 

From this narrative of facts, it is evident .hat 
her organization was not in contradiction with her 
manner of feeling and thinking, and thai she de- 
served the benefit of the application of extenuating 
motives. 

There is no illegal action which has greater 
and juster claims to be treated with equity than 
child-murder. In various countries penal legisla- 
tion is too severe in this respect. I am far from 
excusing a crime when it is voluntary ; but T con- 
tend also for extenuating motives, whenever they 
can be admitted. Legislators and judges are 
commonly more or less severe, according to their 
own manner of feeling, rather than according to 
philosophical principles. Several say is it possi- 
ble to imagine a more barbarous and inhuman 
action, than that of a mother, deaf to the cries of 
nature, destroying her child, at the moment when 
he seeks for aliment from her breast ^ Others 
leply, that because infanticide is a crime against 
nature, and because the hearts of all mothers re- 
volt at the idea of it, it is impossible that it can 



EXTE]\trATING MOTIVES. 311 

be committed except in a moment of derangement, 
and in a state of delirium. 

Infanticide impresses us with the idea of bar- 
barity and atrocity with the greater force, be- 
jQi^.se it seems natural that the love of offspring 
^iiould prevent such an action. It is true, nature 
:as endowed the greater number of women with 
nis benevolent propensity. But in women, as 
.well as in females of animals, this propensity has 
different degrees of energy. Certain cows do not 
sufier their calves to suck ; some pigs, cats, rab- 
bits, &,c. kill their young, while other females of 
the same kind of animals cry for several days, 
and refuse to eat, when they are bereft of their 
offspring. It is a lamentable truth, that this dif- 
ference of motherly love exists aJso in mankind. 
All women do not desire to become mothers 
some consider their pregnancy as the greatest mis 
fortune. Several mothers seek various pretexts, in 
oi'der to remove their children out of the house 
There are others, who being freed from shame, 
reproach, misery, and many inconveniences, by 
the loss of their illegitimate children, yet shed 
tears for a long time after, at the remembrance Oi 
them. Others, on the contrary, see their legiti- 
mate offspring buried without a pang. Thus it is 
beyond doubt, that natural love of offspring is 
very weak in some women. It is therefore wrong 
to believe that infanticide is a more unnatural act 
than any other murier. 



312 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS 

T have examined thirty-seven child murderers, 
and in thirty the organ of Philoprogeny was very 
small. It does not follow that a mother, in v^hom 
the organ is small, must necessarily destroy her 
offspring. My object is only to observe, that this 
sentiment is not strong in every mother, and that, 
if females, in whom it is weaiv, are exposed to va- 
rious unfortunate circumstances, they are destitute 
of a great motive to combat the internal sensations 
which may impel them to this crime. 

Almost all laws against infanticide are framed 
on the supposition, that this crime, when not com- 
mitted in a fit of rage an^ hatred, is always pre- 
meditated. But is it true that these two are the 
only affections which exclude premeditation ? 
Different actions of our sex may be cited, in an- 
swer to this question. How often does not the 
sentiment of honor, which is even preposterous, 
dispose man to hazard his life. Several have de- 
stroyed themselves, for having lost a woman they 
loved. Others despair from disappointed ambi- 
tion, or from the loss of fortune. Our sex, how- 
ever, is the strongest ; we are seldom destitute of 
all resources, or deprived of all hope of finding a 
companion for life. How different is the situa- 
tion of an unfortunate woman? The intellectual 
faculties of the female sex are commonly weaker ; 
hence they have less will to resist their stronger 
sensibility, and stronger affections and passions. 
Their sentiment of honor and shame is cultivated 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. S13 

from infancy, exercised and cxnited ; and we re« 
cinire of young-, tiniorons, inexperienced and sen- 
sible creatures, when the most (hx\idrul event over- 
wliehns them, to be cool, calm, and reflecting-. 
The complaints of pregnancy, and many terrible 
thoughts during it, weaken the bodily stren,q-th, 
increase irritability, and disturb the mind. When 
the critical moment arrives, they are most fre- 
quently alone, without consolation, overwhelmed 
with grief and weakened ; how, then, can we ex- 
peat that their judgment should be sound ? and if 
such an unhappy mother destroy the feeble exist- 
ence of her offspring, perhaps in a fit of delir'um, 
how is it possible to confound such an action with 
the most horrible of crimes ? 

Moreover, men and women are more irritable at 
certain periods. In my work on Insanity, I liave 
treated of these periods of irritability in tb.e arti- 
cle on Fits. It coincides with tiie period of the 
menses, and their delivery happens at the same 
time, viz. wlien the n)other would have had the 
tenth periodical return. Thus it is natural, that 
at this period the unfortunate woman should feel 
licr situation more strongly, and be more inclined 
to take a fatal resolution. 

Our sex can never be exposed to such a misfor- 
tune; and if, as it is the case in certain couiUries, 
we, the legislators, tlink that it is not expedient 

to require satisfaction from the seducer, and if we 
28 



514 CORjjECTlON OF MALEFACTCRS. 

fear to be iinjujjt against perfidy, why do we feai 
to be indiilg-ent and humane, towards the frail and 
disappointed female ? It is even conceivable, that 
such an unfortunate mother may continually think 
of the ingratitude and perfidy of the father of her 
child ; that she may consider how he has deceived 
her in the most infamous manner; how he is the 
cause of her ignominy and misery ; how he for- 
gets his forfeit, whilst, in some countries, the laws 
do not afford her any protection against him ; and 
how his stratagems • are styled merely love in- 
trigues. May not indignation trouble her under- 
standing, and excite derangement of her mind. 

Indeed, if it were not so difficult for a mother 
to take such a desperate resolution, infanticide, 
the result of illegitimate pregnancies and of per- 
fidy on the side of seducers, would be much more 
frequent. Hence it is but just to take into con- 
sideration the internal conflict which may have 
deranged the senses of a child niurderess, and to 
appreciate all extenuating motives. The ideas on 
infanticide, which Dr. Hunter has detailed in a 
letter to the Royal Society of London, deserve 
the attention of every criminal legislator. I agree 
that it must be punished as murder, when it is 
committed with premeditation, with mature re- 
flection, in the complete use of moral liberty, with- 
out an urgent provocation, and through mere de- 
pravity of morals. In this case, the legislator de- 
serves all thanks for protecting the child who is 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 315 

without support and defence. But it is important 
to know how to distinguish the difTerent circuui* 
stances which accompany this action, and there 
can be nc doubt that verj^ often infanticide admits 
of many extenuating motives. 

Lying-in hospitals, where every woman with 
ciiiki IS taken in and brought to bed, without be- 
ing obHgcd to say who she is and whence she 
came, and foundhng-hospitals, often prevent in- 
fanticide. In countries where such estabhshments 
are wanting, child-murder is more frequent than 
in others where they exist. These institutions, 
however, tend so much to weaken the motives to 
moral restraint furnished by the obligation to sup 
jort and to cherish offspring, that it may be fair 
iy questioned whether the evils they produce in 
this point of view, are not greater than those they 
prevent in the other. 

In order to prevent child-murder, there is a 
law in certain countries, which obliges pregnant 
girls to discover their situation to some accouch- 
eur or midwife. If they do not fulfd this formal 
ity, they are supposed to have tlie intention of 
committing infanticide. In other countries, the 
proprietors of houses are answerable for pregnant 
girls who live in them. They are thus required 
to know the state of their locatories. 



316 CORRECT..ON OF MALEFACTORS. 

Unfortunately legislators are often in the same 
situation as physicians who attend incurable dis- 
eases. Tliey try uncertain means, rather than do 
nothing. The law which obliges women to iiui- 
mate their state of pregnancy, is in contradiction 
to nature. It is not necessary to mention, that 
there is no need of such a law with respect to girls 
of the town. These have lost their bashfulness, 
and will go to the lynig-in hospitals to be deliver- 
ed. Such a regulation, therefore, must be intend- 
ed for timorous, bashful, and decent women, who 
have been seduced. Now, the feeling of honor 
and bashfulness is considered as the best safeguard 
of female virtue, and is constantly cherished ac- 
cordingly ; nevertheless, when such a girl falls, 
she is required, under pain of punishuK^/t, to make 
her shame known. There are men of mature age 
who, with the greatest reluctance, would confess 
certain diseases to their most intimate friends. 
How, then, can the law be so severe on females 
for not confessing a circumstance which they are 
taught to look upon as more disgraceful than any 
disease ^ Besides, when we consider that such 
unfortunate girls are frequently actuated by * 
strong feeling of the ignominy and misfortur.e ('.t'^.y 
bring on their family by their m'sz-on t^ot, we 
ou£rht to recollect, that their o\<J\iZ.ff 'i t;oiicea' 
lug their state, may, in truth, or .%]'/:'- xtn-ro nea 
Ty to virtue than to crime. 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. SH 

Thus if extenuating- motives are in any circiim- 
stance? to be admitted, in no cases will they 
be more truly applicable than in those of infanti- 
cide. 

In my work on Insanity, I have shown, thai 
suicide in many cases is the effect of a corporeal 
disease. It then admits extenuating motives. 
Criminal legislators, if better acquainted with it 
than they commordy are, certainly will modify 
the laws upon the subject. These very rarely 
are of much efficacy in deterring those who vv^ish 
to end their days, and are no punishment for them 
after death ; but it is not a matter of indifference 
to whole families, to have the stigma of alliance 
with a malefactor forced ujjon tliem, when in fact 
they have only had the misfortune to be connected 
with a diseased individual. For details on ihia 
subject I refer to my work on Insanity. 



The considerations j exami;ied in the Appendix 
of this work, tend to show, that legislation in 
every branch ought to have only one aim, viz. 
the general happiness of mankind, and that of 
each individual, as far as it is compatible with 
the former ; that penal legislation, in particular, 
ought to be corrective ; that in prisons, the in- 
habitants of which are to be sent back into society, 
all possible means of correction should be em- 
ployed ; that capital punishment might be abol 
ished, and the crimes for which it is inflicted pre- 
vented, by proper establishments. As punish- 
^ ment, however, is still the object of the penal code, 
i have treated of the different degrees of guilt 
which may be implied in criminal actions ; and of 
some illegal actions that admit of extenuating mo- 
tives, such as suicide and infanticide. From this 
Appendix, too, it may be inferred, how important 
and necessary, for legislators and judges, is the 
study of man 



APPENDIX 

TO THE AiNIEKICAN EDITION 



Dy the fovegoing pages it will be observed that to ''know our- 
selves," or to be able to judge correctly of the dispositions or capar 
bililies of others, is a matter of the very greatest importance, and to 
still farther facilitate the acquisition of this knowledge of human 
character and render the work more practical and easy of compre- 
hension, we have appended a brief description of the T£mperament3, 
to understand which will be found indispensably necessary, before 
being able to judge with accuracy, or to form a proper estimate of the 
capacity of any individual. 

Phrenology and Physiology combined, prove that there is as 
much depending on the quality as the quantity of brain, and by 
the aid of the Temperaments we are enabled to judge with a 
greater degree of accuracy than it would be possible for us to do 
without. In fact, a knowledge of the Temperamebts, is as essential 
to a successful prosecution of the study of Phrenology, as a know- 
ledge of the four ground rules of Arithmetic is to a general know- 
knowledge of Mathematics. 



THE TEMPERAMENTS 

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Tke following description of the Temperaments is from Combe's 
System of Phrenology. For a more elaborate representation see 
Fowler's Practical Phrenology--, in which these various combinations 
are given in full, yet otherwise differing in some degree from Mr. 
Combe. 

" There are four temperaments, accompanied with different degrees 
of activity iu the brain — the Lymphatic, the Sang*jixe, the BiLtocs, 



S20 THE TEMPERAMENTS. 

and the Nervous. The temperaments are supposed to depend tipon 
the coustitulion of particular conditions of the body^ the brain and 
tierves being predominantly active from constitutional ciMses, seem to 
produce the nervous temperament; the lungs, heart, and blood-ves- 
pels being ccnstitutionally pred(miinant, to give I'ise to the sanguine, 
the muscular and fibrous systems to the bilious; and the glands and 
assimilating organs to the lymphatic. 

" The ditFerent temperaments are indicated by external signs, which 
are o[)en to observation. The Lvmphatc Tempjcuamknt is distia- 
gui!>hable by a round form of the body, softness of the muscular syc- 
tem, repletion of the cellular tissue, fair hair, and a pale skiu. It is 
accompanied by languid vital actions, with weakness, and slowness 
in the circulation. The brain, as part of the system, is also slow, Ian 
guid, and feeble in its action, and the mental manifestations are pro 
portionally weak. 

" The Sanguine Temperament is indicated by well-defined fomis, 
moderate plumpness of person, tolerable firmness of flesh, light hair 
inclining to chestmit, blue eyes, and fair complexion, with ruddiness 
of countenance. It is marked by great activity of the blooU-vessels, 
fondneS'S for exercise, and an animated countenance. The brain j>ar- 
takes of ihe general state, and is active. 

" The BiMous Temperament is recognized by black hair, dark skin, 
moderate fulness and much lirmiiess of 11e.-<h, with harshly expressed 
oulline of the })erson. Tlie fiuictions parlake of great energy of 
action, wliicli extends to the br.iin ; and ihe countenance, in conse- 
quence, shows strong-marked and decided features. 

" 'J'he Nervous Tkmpekament is I'ecognized by fine thin hair, thin 
skin^ small thin muscles, quickness in muscular motion, paleness of 
countenance, and often delicate health. The whole nervous system, 
including the brain, is predominantly active, and the mental manifest- 
ations are proportionally vivacious." 

Different occupations, however, require and produce a predomi- 
nance of one or more of the Temperaments over the other, as, also, 
of the Phrenological organs^ each of which are capable of grea* 
change, even in a short space of time, as, for exam{)le those engaged 
in literary pursuits, such as Writers, Teachers, and Clergymen, require 
a predominance of the Nervous or INIental Temperaments. Far- 
mers, Mechanics, and Seamen, require a predominance of tiia San- 
uuiN£ and Bilious Temperaments, etc. 




SANGUINE, 




BILIOUS 



WBRVCUS. 



SYMBiJLlCAL HEAD 

LN WHICH EACH ORGAN IS ILLUSTRATETT 




LOCATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE FACULTIES 



5 Moral SentiJucnti. 
^ 6^ \ Sentiments. ^^-•- 

'''■' i (r^ ' "" 



1y 




DEFINITION CF THE FACULTIES 

ACCORDING TO THEIR NUMBERS. 



DOMESTIC PROPENSITIES. 

1. Amativeness. — Connubial love; the attachment ff the 
sexes to each other, adapted to the continuance of the race 
Abuse : Licentiousness and obscenity. Deficiency : Want of 
affection toward the opposite sex. 

2. Philoprogenitiveness. — Parental love ; fondness for 
pets, and the young and helpless generally, adapted to the in- 
fantile condition. Abuse : Excessive indulgence ; idolizing and 
spoiling children by caresses. Deficiency : Neglect of tlie 
young. 

3. Adhesiveness. — Friendship ; love of company ; disposi- 
tion to ASSOCIATE. Adapted to man's requisition for society 
and concert of action. Abuse : Excessive fondness for com- 
pany. Deficiency : Neglect of friends and society ; the hermit 
disposition. 

4. Inhabitiveness. — Love of home; desire to live perma- 
nently in one place ; adapted to the necessity of a home. Abuse : 
Prejudice against other countries. Deficiency : Continually 
roaming from place to place. 

A. Union for Life. — Desire to pair ; to unite for life ; 
and to remain constantly with the loved one. Abuse : Trans- 
ferring our affections from one to another Deficiency : Want 
of congenial affection. 

5. Continuity.— Ability to chain the thoughts and feelings, 
and dwell continually on one subject until it is completed. 
Abuse* Prolixity ; tediously dwelling on a subject. Deficiency; 
Excessive fondness for variety ; " Has several irons in the fire 



324 rEFINITION OF THE FACULTIES. 

at once ;" seldom finishes what has been commenced ; veiy 
transitive. 

SELFISH PROPENSITIES. 

E. ViTATivENESs. — Love of life ; youthful vigor even in 
advanced age. Abuse : Extreme tenacity to life ; fear of 
death. Deficiency : Recklessness, and unnecessary exposure 
of life and health. 

6. CoMBATiVENESS. — Self-defence; resistance; the energetic 
go-a-head disposition. Abuse: A quick, fiery, excitable, fault- 
finding, contentious disposition. Deficiency : Cowardice ; want 
of courage. 

7. Destructiveness. — Executiveness ; propelling power; 
the exterminating feeling. Abuse : The malicious, retaliating, 
revengeful, and murderous disposition. Deficiency : Extreme 
lameness; inefificiency. 

8. Alimentiveness. — Appetite ; desire for nutrition ; enjoy- 
ment of food and drink. Abuse: Gluttony; gormandizing; 
drunkenness. Deficiency: Want of appetite ; abstemiousness. 

9. Acquisitiveness. — Economy; disposition to save and 
accumulate property. Abuse: Avarice; theft; extreme self- 
ishness. Deficiency : ProiJigality ; inability to appreciate the 
true value of property ; lavisii and wasteful. 

10. Secretiveness. — Policy; management. Abuse: Cun- 
ning ; foxy ; to lay low ; keep dark ; disguise. Deficiency : 
Want of tact ; bluntness of expression. 

11. Cautiousness. — Prudence ; carefulness ; watchfulness; 
reasonable solicitude. Abuse : Fear; timidity; procrastination. 
Deficiency : Careless ; heedless ; reckless. 

12. Approbativennss. — Aflfability ; ambition; desire to be 
elevated and promoted. Abuse : Vanity ; self-praise ; and 
extreme sensitiveness. Deficiency : Indifference to public 
opinion ; and disregard for personal appearance. 

13. Self Esteem. — Dignity; manliness; love of liberty; 
nobleness; an aspiring disposition. Abuse: Extreme pride; 
arrogance; an aristocratic, domineering, 'repulsive spirit. Defi- 
aiency : Lack of self respect and appreciation. 



DKFINITIOX OF THE FACULTIES. 325 

J4. FiRM.NEss. — Decision; "stability ; perseverance; unwil- 
lingness to 3"ieicl ; fortitude. Abuse : Oli>5tiri«'-" • T,r;if.^ir.«op 
mulishness, (see cut fig. 14). Deficiency: Fickle-minded. No 
dependence can be placed on such a development, ns there i? 
no stability o'" character. 

MORAL SENTIMENTS. 

io. (A».\>XlK>T!OLSNKSS. J UStlCe ; infegrKy , jSiiso ui uHl>, 

and of moral obligation. Abuse: Sciu;i lousness . seli-con- 
deninatioii : i-einorse: unjust censure. Deficiency: No peni- 
tence fur -sin, or compunction for having done wrong. 

IG. Hope. — Expectation ; anticipation ; looking into the future 
with confidence of success Abuse : Extravagant promises ; 
find anticipation of impossible success. Deficiency : Despond- 
ency ; gloom: melancholy. 

17. Spirituality. — Intuition; perception of the spiritual, 
wonder. Abuse : Belief in ghosts, witchcraft, and many of 
the unreasonable isms. Deficiency : Lack of faith ; extreme 
\ncredulity : skepticism. 

18. Venkratio-x. — Reverence; worship; adoration; respect 
(ov antiquity. Abuse : Idolatry ; superstition ; worship of 
wooden gods. Deficiency : Disregard for the feelings of others, 
or for things sacred. 

19. Benevol>:-nce. — Kindness; desire to do good; sympa- 
thy ; philanthropy : disinterestedness. Abuse : Giving alms tc 
the undeserving ; too easily overcome by scenes of suffering. 
Deficiency : Extreme selfishness ; no regard for the distresses 
of others. 

SEMI-INTELLECTUAL SENTIMENTS. 

20. CoNSTRUCTiVE.NESs. — Mochanical ingenuity ; ability to 
use tools ; construct and invent. Abuse : A loss of time and 
money in trying to invent perpetual motion. Deficiency : In- 
ability to use tools or understand machinery; lack of skill. 

21. Ideality. — Love of the perfect and beautiful ; refine- 
ment; ecstasy; poetry. Abuse: A disgust even for the com- 



22i) DEFLVITIOIS or THE FACULTIES. 

nion duties of life. Deficiency: Houghness : want of tijsto nl 
refinement; disregpad of tlie fine arts. ■ 

B. Sublimity. — Fondness for the grand and niagnificent: 
tile wild and romantic in nature, as Niagara Fails; mountain 
sconory. Abuse : Extravagant representations ; fondness for 
tragedies. Deficiency : Views the terrific without pleasure or 
emotion. 

22- Imitation. — Power of imitating; copying; working 
after a pattern. Abuse : Mimicry ; servile imitation. Defi- 
ciency : Inability to conform to the mannei-s and customs of 
society. 

23. MiRTKFULMiss. — Wit; fuu ; playfulness; humor; ability 
to joke, and enjoy a hearty laugh. Abuse : Ridicule and sport 
of the infirmities and misfortunes of others. Deficiency : Gra- 
vity ; indifference to all anuisements. 

INTELLECTUAL ORGANS. 

OSSERVING AM) K^'OV/I^■G FACULTIES. 

24. Lndividualitt. — Ability to acquire knowledge by obs«v 
vation, and to see all things seeable. Abuse : An insatiable 
desire to know all about other people's business ; extreme in- 
quisitiveness. Deficiency : A want of practical knowledge, and 
indisposition to notice external objects. 

25. Form. — Memory of shapes, forms, faces ; the configura- 
tion of all things ; it enables us to readily notice resemblances ; 
when fully developed, we seldom forget countenances. Defi' 
ciency: A poor memory of faces, shapes, etc.; not a good 
artist. 

2G. Size. — Ability to judge of size, length, breadth, height, 
depth, distance, and weight of oodies by their size ; of measur- 
ing angles, perpendiculars, etc. ; ability to judge accurately of 
the proportion which one body holds to another. Deficiency 
Unable to judge between small and large ; seldom judges c( r 
rectly the dimensions of an object. 

27. Weight. — Gravity ; ability to balance on-e's self, requirer 
by a marksman, horseman, or dancer ; also the ability to " cari^ 
a steady hand." Abuse : Excessive desire to climb trees, or gc 



DKn.viTio.N or Til?: faculties. 327 

filott usinecest a rily . DelVcieiicy : luubilily to keep one's I ultmce ; 
liabiiity lo sluinhle. 

23. Color. — .Judgment of the different sliades, hues, and 
fints, in paintings ; the rainbow, and all things possessing color, 
will be objects of interest. Abuse: Extravagantly fond of 
cjolors ; a desire to dress with many colors. Deficiency : Inabil- 
ity to distinguish or appreciate colors, or their harmony. 

29. Order. — Method ; system ; arrangement ; ne-atness and 
convenience. Abuse : More nice than wise ; spends too mucli 
time in fixing; greatly annoyed by disorder; old maidish. 
Deficiency : Slovenliness ; carelessness about the arrangement 
of books, tools, papers, etc. ; seldom kuoYv^s where to find any- 
thing, although recently used. 

30. Calculation. — Ability to reckon figures in the head ; 
mental arithmetic ; to add, subtract, divide, multiply ; cast ac- 
counts and reckon figures mentally. Abuse : A disposition to 
count everything. Deficiency : InabUity to understand the most 
simple numerical relations. 

31. Locality. — Recollection of places; the geographical 
faculty ; desire to travel and see the world. Abuse : A roving, 
unsettled disposition. Deficiency : Inability to remem.ber places; 
liability to get lost. 

32. Eventuality. — ^Memory of events ; love of histoiy, 
anecdotes, facts, items of all sorts; a kind of walking newspaper. 
Abuse : Constant story-telling to the neglect of duties. 

33. Time.—- Recollection ot the lapse of time ; day and 
date ; ability to keep the time in music and dancing, and the 
step in walking ; to be able to carry the time of day in the 
head. Abuse : Drumming with the feet and fingers, much to 
the annoyance of others, when in company. Deficiency: In- 
ability to remember the time when things transpired ; a poor 
memory of dates. 

34. Tune. — Love of music, and perception of harmony, 
giving a desire to compose music. Abase : A continual singing, 
humming, or whistling, regardless of propi-iety. Deficiency : 
Inability to cojiiprchenf! the charms of music 



328 rEFINITIO.\ OF THE FACULTIES. 

35. Language. — Ability to express our ideas verbally and 
to use such words as will best express oiir meaning ; memory 
of words. Abuse : Volubility of expression ; more words than 
thoughts. Deficiency : Extreme hesitation in selecting appro- 
priate language. 

REFLECTIVE OR REASONING INTELLECT. 

36. Causality. — Ability to reason and comprehend first 
principles ; the why and wherefore faculty ; originality. Abuse : 
Too much theory, without bringing the mind to a practical 
bearing : — such a mind may become a philosopher, but neither 
practical or scientific. 

37. Comparison. — Inductive reasoning ; ability to classify, 
and apply analogy to the discernment of principles ; to general- 
ize, compare, discriminate, illustrate ; to draw correct infer- 
ences, etc., etc. Abuse : Excessive criticism. Deficiency : 
To be unable to perceive the relation of one thing to another. 

C. Human Nature. — Discernment of human character , 
perception of the motives of strangers at the first interview. 
Abuse : Unjust suspicion ; a disposition to treat all strangers as 
rogues. Deficiency : Misplaces confidence ; is easily deceived. 

D. Agreeableness. — Blandness and persuasiveness of man- 
ner, expression, and address ; pleasantness ; insinuation ; the 
faculty of saying even disagreeable things pleasantly. Abuse : 
Affectation. Deficiency : Want of ease of manner ; inability 
to make one's self agreeable. 



(From Chambers's Information for the Pecple.) 

THE PRIMITIVE FACULTIES OF MIND, AS CONNECTED WITH 
THEIR ORGANS IN THE BRAIN. 

Mind, which was considered by the metaphysicians as a single 
thing or essence, was said by them to be capable of being in 
diflfei-ent states, in each of which states it made one of its va- 
rious manifestations, as memory, judgmeOt, anger, etc. In no 
particular does the phrenological hypothesis difier more from 
the metaphysical than in this. The phrenological doctrine is, 



FACULTIES OF THE JIIND. 329 

•^hat the brain, the organ of the mind, is divided into various 
&culties each of which has its own mode of acting. It is held — 

First. That by accurate observation of human* actions, it is 
possib e to discriminate the dispositions and intellectual power 
of man, such as love, anger, benevolence, observation, reflec- 
tion, etc. 

Secondbj That the true form of the brain can be ascer- 
tained from the external form of the head; the brain, though 
the softer substance, being what rules the shape of the skull, 
just as a shell takes its form from the animal within. 

I'liirdly. The organs or parts into which the brain is divided, 
all of which organs are possessed by every individual except in 
case of idiocy, appear on the brain's surface in folds or convolu 
tions, somewhat like the bowels or viscera of an animal, but 
have a well-ascertained fibrous connection through the whole 
substance of the brain with one point at its base, called th€ 
medulla oblongata^ which unites the brain to the spinal cord. 
The organs have thus each a conical form from the medulla 
oblongata to the surface ; the whole being not inaptly compared 

to the stalks and flower of a caiJiflower. 

Fourthly. The brain is divided into two equal parts called 
hemispheres ; on each side of the fosse or division between these 
hemispheres the same organ occurs ; all the organs are there- 
fore double, in analogy with the eyes, ears, etc. But when the 
term organ is used, both organs are meant. The organs which 
sire situated close to the middle line drawn vertically on the 
Uead, though close to each other, are nevertheless double ; for 
example. Individuality, Benevolence, Firmness, etc. 

Fifthly. Besides the brain proper, there is a smaller brain, 
attached to the hinder part of the base of the brain, called the 
cerebellmn. 

Sixthly. The brain, including the cerebellum, is divided into 
the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. The cerebellum forms 
part of the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe contains ail the 
intellectual faculties ; the posterior and lower range of the mid- 
dle lobe are the regions of the animal propensities ; while the 
moral sentiments are found, with a sort of local pre-eminence, 
to have their oi-gans de-cloped on the top or coronal surface of 
the head. 



330 



V!]':'v or 



a!N. 



VOP OF rilY. BRAirf. 





Kw^.<^^ . 






% - 



This view represents the top or upper part of the braiij 
sliowing its \Tirious convolutions; each of which is supposed U 
piuforni different functions. 



VtLAV OF Jli'y, BT.AIX. 



331 



hASF OF THE URAIN 

A A 




FF, The cerebellum, allotted to Amativeness andProcveatiou 
AA, The anterior lobe— Intellectual Faculties. 
DD, The middle lobe— Animal Propensities. 
BB, The posterior lobe— Domestic Propensities. 



rMPOx r.Axei-: of fiirkxologt 
TESTIMONIALS 

FROM DISTINGUISHED MEN IN FAVOR OF 
PHRENOLOGY. 

*' It is emineLtly, we think, the system of mental philosophy 
for the unlearned man, because it is much less abstinct than 
any other. In perusing the account which it gives of the mind 
and its parts, ordinary people feel, for the first time in their 
attempts at psychological investigation, that they have ground 
whereon to rest the soles of their feet. Thus, supposing tht 
observations made with regard to the connection of certair. 
manifestations of thought and feeling with certain parts of the 
bi'ain to be untrue, there is still a distinct value in Phrenolog5% 
lis an extensively available means of studying mind. We deem 
it right, at the same time, to mention that Phrenology appeals 
lo us as beforehand likely to be true, in as far as it assigns a 
natural basis to mind ; while we are equally sensible that its 
leading doctrines have acquired a title to a very respectful atten- 
tion, from the support given to them by avast amount of careful 
observation, and the strikingly enlightened and philanthro})ic 
aims for which jnany of its supporters have become remai'k 
able." — Robert Chambers. 

" Were I at this moment oflered the wealth of India on 
condition of Phrenology being blotted from my mind for ever, I 
should scorn the gift ; nay, were the wealth of the world placed 
in one hand, and Phrenology in the other, and orders issued for 
me to choose one. Phrenology, v/ithout a moment's hesitation, 
.vould be preferred." — George Combe. 

" It is my decided opinion, that he who teaches and trains 
upon phrenological principles, will experience a constantly in- 
creasing attachment to his profession, will invariably secure the 
affectionate esteem of his pupils, and will, as a necessary con- 
sequence, succeed in giving them a thorough education, moral, 
intellectual, and ])hysical. I write this from several y«ars ex- 
tensive experience. * 

" ]n history, the use of Phrenology is truly valuable, and, 1 
iiiay add, in overylhing ehe." — A. J. Dorsey. 



KIEMOIR OF GAL]-. 



•^3 



<;., . 




FRANCIS JOSEPH GALL. 



Dr. Gall, the founder of Phrenology, was born in Germany 
in the year 1758. His parents being professors of the Roman 
Catholic religion had intended him for the seiTice of that 
church ; but his natural disposition was averse to such a course, 
and having become early interested in medical studies, he pre- 
ferred to engage in that profession. His youth was spent in 
acquiring a knowledge of the elementaiy branches of science 
and literature. He was passionately fond of the studies of na- 
ture, and frequently resorted to the country and the forests to 
make observations on butterflies, insects, birds, and other tribes 
of the animal kingdom. This spirit of inquiiy was undoubtedly 
the key which opened up to him the way to his future discove- 
ries. Gall had observed that those scholars with whom he 
found the greatest difficulty in competing in verbal memory, 
were distinguished for large prominent eyes. He made very 



gj^.j iMEMOlR OF &ALf.. 

extensive observations on this point ai.d w:u> .hiully led tc suspecl 
*liat there must be some necessary connection between memorj 
^OY u'ords and the size and j)rojection of the eye. Afterwards, 
while engaged in medical studies, he found that, though the 
struct uie and functions of every other organ of the human body 
were understood by anatomists and physiologists, those of the 
brain were enveloped in the greatest mystery. He found on 
examination also that the notions of philosophers respecting the 
faculties or powers of the mind were of the most vague, indefi- 
nite and unsatisfactory nature. And after the most extensive 
observation and research, Gail was led to believe that the brain 
was the organ of the mind, and moreover, that it was composed 
of a congeries of organs, and, that the mind consisted of a cor- 
responding number of faculties, which has since been thoroughly 
tested, and most conclusively demonstrated, by observation and 
experiment. Nor does the writer know of a single individual 
who has examined the science, who pretends to disbelieve in 
its most beautiful principles. 

Gall's head, as will be seen by the engraving, is truly mag- 
nificent ; and his countenance, dress, and manners, with the 
depth, profoundness, liberality, and simplicity of his remarks, 
prove to you that he is a philosopher — a perfect gentleman — 
and a kind-hearted friend. — From the Biography of Dr. Gall. 



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Your Character from IToui 

Likeness. For particulars, hov to hav» 
pictures taken, inclose stamp fc r a copj 
of " Mirror of the Mind." 



To Pliysicians, liCcturerSj and 

Examiners. We have a cabinet of 40 
Casts of Heads, selected from Our Mn 
seum. which are sold at $85.00. Also a 
set of Phrenological Drawiigs, on can- 
vas, size of life, 40 in number, price 
$40.00. A set of six Anatomical and 
Physiological plates, colored and mount- 
ed, $iO. Another pet of twenty, in sheets, 
plain, $35. Colored and mounted. *60. 
Skeletons, from $40 to $60. Manikins, 
$250 to $1000. Portraits in oil from $5 
upwards. Woodcuts, $3.50 to $5. Sym- 
bolical Heads, Electrotypes, $3 to $5, 
and $7.50, according to size. 

All Works pertaining to tlie " Science of Man," including Phren- 
ology, Physiognomy, Ethnology, Psychology, Physiology, Anatomy, 
Hygiene, Dietetics, etc., supplied. Enclose stamp for Wholesale Terms 
to Agents. Address S. R. Wells, 389 Broadway, New York. 



Works on Physiology and Hygiene. 

[It has been said that, a man at Forty Years o ' Age, is either a " Physician or a Fool." 
That at this Age, he ought to know how to treat, and take care of himself. These 
Works are intended to give instruction on "How to Live." How to avoid Diseases 
and of Premature Decay. They are practical, adapted to both People and Profession.] 



Anatomical and Physiolo{2:ical 

Plates Arranged expressly for Lectures 
on Health, Physiology, etc. By R. T. 
Trail, M. D. They are six in number, 
representing the normal position and 
life-size of all the internal viscera, mag- 
nified illustrations of the organs of the 
special senses, and a view of the nerves, 
arteries, veins, muscles, etc. Fully col- 
ored, backed, and mounted on rollers. 
Price for the set, net $'20. 

Avoidable Causes of Disease, 

Insanity, and Deformity, including 
Marriage and its Violations. By Dr. 
John Ellis. $2. 

Children, their Management in Health 
and Disease. A Descriptive and Practi- 
cal Work. By Dr. Shew, $1.75. 

Diseases of tlie Throat and 

Lungs. With Treatment. 25 cents. 
I^oinestic Practice of Hydro- 

PATHY, with a form of a Report for the 
assistance of Patients in consulting their 
Physicians. By E. Johnson, M. D. $2. 
Family Gymnasium. Containing 
the most improved methods of applying 
Gymnastic. Calisthenic, Kinesipathic, 
and Vocal Exercises, to the Develop- 
ment of the Bodily Organs. By, Dr. 
Trail. Many Illustrations. $1.75. 



Food and Diet, With observation^ 
on the Dietical Uegimen suited for Dis- 
ordered States of the Digestive Organs, 
Dietaries of the Principal Metropolitan 
Establishments for Lunatics, Criminals, 
Children, the Sick, Paupers, etc. A 
thorough scientific Work. By Jonathan 
Pereira, M. D., F. R. S. and L. S. Edited 
by Charles A. Lee, M. D. $1.75. 

Fruits and Farinacea, the 

I'ropeb Food of Man. Vegetarian. By 
John Smith. With Notes and lUtcstra- 
tions. By R.T. Trail, M.D. Muslin, $1.75. 

IIydroi>athic Coolc Book. With 
Recipes for Cooking on Hygienic Princi- 
ples. By Dr. Trail. $1.50. 

Hydropathic Encyclopedia. A 

System of Hydropathy and Hygiene. 
Embracing Outlines of Anatomy ; Phy- 
siology of the Human Body ; Hygienic 
Agencies, and the Preservation of 
Health; Theory and Practice; Special 
Pathology, including the Nature, Causes, 
Symptoms, and Treatment of all knowB 
Diseases. Designed as a Guide to Fami 
lies and Students, and a Text- Book for 
Physicians. By U. T. Trail. M.D. $4.50. 
The most complete Work on the subject 



Faiidily Pliysician. A Ready Pres- 
criber and Hygien .c Adviser. With Ref- 
erence to the Nature, Causes, Preven- 
tiou, and Treatment of Diseases, Acci- 
dents, and casualties of every kind. 
With a Glossary, and Copious Inuox. 
By Joel &h: v. M. D. Muslin, $i. 

]IIanaa:enteiit of Infancy, Physio- 
logical and Moral Troatroent. By An- 
drew Combe, M. D. With Notes and a 
Supplementary Chapter. Muslin, $1.50. 

Midwifery and llie Diseases of 

Women. A Descriptive and Practical 
Work. With tht general management 
of Child Birth, Nursery, etc. $1.75. 

Movement-Cure. An Exposition of 
the ^wedish Movement-Cure. Embrac- 
ing the History aud Philosophy of this 
System of Medical Treatment, s^ith Ex- 
amples of Movements. andDiret ions for 
their Use in Various Forms of Chronic 
Diseases. Illustrated. By George H. 
Taylor, M. D. Muslin, $1.75. 

Notes on Beauty, Vigor and De- 

TELOPMENT ; Or, How to Acquire Plump- 
ness of Form, Strength of Limb, and 
Beauty of Complexion. 12 cents. 

Pljysloloijy of Digestion. Con- 
sidered with relation to the Principles 
of Dietetics. I :y Andrew Combe, D.M. 
Illustrated. 50 cents. 

l»hllosopl»y of tlie Water-Cure. 

A Development of the true Principles of 
Health and Longevity. By John Balbir- 
nie, M.D. 50 cents. 

Practice of tlie Water Cure. Con- 

iSS|p?ocSset "'foT.St^"''' ™"°'" "A SpecialList" of 70 or more Private 

Medical, Surgical and Anatomical Works, 
Physiolog-y, Animal and Mental : invaluable to those who need them, sent 
Applied to the Preservation and Restor- i"»» "o.^ ^ iw i, wo^ » uv- ia^^^^ ^ ^ ' ,. 
ation of Health of Body and Power of on receipt of stamp. Address S. R. Wells, 
Mind. lUustrated. Muslin, $1.50. 8S9 Broadway, New York. 

The Reader will greatly oblige by exbibiting tbis Catalogue to a 
neighbor, who would, perliaps, be glad to procure some of the Works ; 
or, would like to become a subscriber to the Illustrated Phrenologi- 
cal Journal, or engage in the sale of these publications. 



Works for Home Improvement. 

This List embraces just such Works as are suited to every member of the family- 
old and young. These Works will serve as guides in Self-Improvement, and are aln ost 
indispensable to those who have not the advantages of a liberal education. 



Principles of Physiolog-y applied to 
the Preservation of Health and to the 
Improvement of Physical and Mental 
Education. By Andrew Combe. $1.75. 

Science of Human Life, Lectores on 
THB. By Sylvester Graham. With a 
copious Index and Biographical Sketch, 
of the Author. Illustrated. $3.50. 

Sober and Temperate Life. The Dis 

courses and Letters of Louis Cornaro. 
With a Biography of the Author, who 
died at ISU years of age. 50 cents. 

Tea and Coffee, their Physical, Intel- 
lectual, and Moral Effects on the iSystem. 
By Dr. Alcott, 25 cents. 

The Alcoholic Controversy. A Ee- 

Adew of the Westrrdnster Eevieio on the 
Physiological Errors of Teetotalism. By 
Dr. Trail. 50 cents. 

The Story of a Stomach. By a Re- 
formed Dyspeptic. Paper, 50 cents; 
muslin, 75 cents. 

Three Hours' School a Day. A Seri- 
ous Talk with V^arents. By W iUiam L. 
Crandal. Muslin, $1.50. 

Water-Cure in Chronic Diseases. 

An Exposition of the Causes, Progress 
and Terminations of Various Chronic 
Diseases of the Digestive Organs, Lungs, 
Nerves, and Skin, and of their Treat- 
ment. With engraved View of the Lungs, 
Heart, Stomach, and Bowels. By J. M. 
Gully, M.D. $2. 



Aims and Aids for Girls and Youn^ 
Women, on the various Duties of Life, 
Physical, Intellectual, and Moral, Self- 
Culture, Improvement, Dress, Beauty, 
Employinent, the Home Relations, Du- 
ties to Yonn^ Men, Marriage, Woman- 
hood, and HapDiness. By Rev. G. S. 
Weaver. Muslin, $1.50. 



.ffisop's Fables. The People's Pictorial 
Edition. Beautifully illustrated with 
nearly Sixty Engravings. Cloth, gilt, 
beveled boards. Only $1. 

Benny. An Illustrated Poem. By Anna 
Chambers Ketchum. Published in the 
elegant style of Enoch Arden. A beautl 
fa. Christmas present. $1.5). 



j Chemistry, and its application to Pbys- 
iology, Agriculture, and Commerce. By 
Liebig. 50 cents. 

Footprints of Life ; or, Faith and Na- 
ture Keconciled. A Poem in Three Parts. 
The Body. The t=oui. The Deity. By 
Philip Harvey, M.D. $1.25. 

Fruit Culture for the Million. A 
Hand- Book. Being a Guide to the (.Culti- 
vation and Management of Fruit Trees. 
Descriptions of the Best Varieties, and 
How to Propagate them, lllus. $1. 

Good Man's Hiegracy. A Sermon by 
Kev. Dr. Osgood. 25 cents. G-cspel 
Among- the Animals ; or, CUrist 
with the Cattle. Same. 25 cents. 

Hand-Book for Home Improve- 
MENT : comprising " How to Write," 
"How lo Talk," "'How to Behave," and 
" How to do Business," in one vol. $2.25. 

How to Live ; Saving and Wasting, or, 
Domestic Economy made plain. By 
Solon Robinson. $1.50. 

Home for All ; The Concrete, or Gra- 
vel Wall. New, Cheap, Superior Mode 
of Building. $1.50. 

Hopes and Helps for the Young" of 

BOTH Sexes, Relating to the Formation 
of c;haracter. Choice ot Avocation. Health, 
Conversation, Cultivation of Intellect, 
Moral Sentiment, Social Affection, Court- 
ship and Marriage, By Weaver. $1.50. 

Library of Mesmerism and Psy- 

CHOiiOGT. Comprising the Philosophy 
of Mesmerism, Clairvoyance, and Men- 
tal Electricity ; Fascination, or the Pow- 
er of Charming ; The Macrocosm, or the 
World of Sense ; Electrical Psychology, 
the Doctrine of Impressions; The bci- 
ence of the Soul, treated Physiologically 
and Philosophically. One large vol. Il- 
lustrated. Muslin, $4.0v,. 

Life at Home ; or, The Family and its 
Members. A capital work. By William 
Aikman, D.D. f 1.50 ; gilt, $2. 

Life in the West; or. Stories of the 
Mississippi Valley. Where to buy Pub- 
lic Lands. By N. C. Meeker. $2. 

Man, in G-enesis and in Geology; 

or the Biblical Account of Man's Crea- 
tion, tested by Scientific Theories of his 
Origin and Antiquity. By Joseph P. 
Thompson, D.D.,LL.D. One vol. $1. 

Pope's Essay on Man. With Notes. 
Beautifully Illustrated. Cloth, gilt, bev- 
eled boards, Best edition* $1. 



Oratory— Sacred and Secular; or, ] 

the Estemporai eons ^pcakel•. Inc'uding I 
Chairman's Guide for conducting PuMic 
Meetings according to the best Parlia- 
mentary forms. By Wm. Pittenger. $1.50. 

Temperance in Cong-ress. Ten Min- 
utes' Speeches delivered in the House of 
Representatives. 25 cents. 

The Christian Household. Embrac- 
ing the Christian Home, Husband, Wife, 
Father, Mother, Child, Brother, and Sis- 
ter. By Rev. G. S. Weaver. $1. 

The Emphatic Diaglott ; or. The New 

Testament in Greek and English. Con- 
taining the Original Greek Text of the 
New Testament, with an Interlineary 
Word-for-Word English Translation. A 
work for Students in Theology, and S. S. 
Teachers. By Benjamin Wilson. Price, 
$4, extra fine binding, $5. 

The Planchette Mystery ; An Inquiry 
into the Nature, Origin, Import, and 
Tendencies of Modem Signs and Won- 
ders. How to Work Planchette. 25c. 

The Right Word in the Big-ht 
Place. A i^ew Pocket Dictionary and 
Reference Book. Embracing Synonyms, 
Technical Terms, Abbreviations, For- 
eign Phrases, Writing for the Press, 
Punctuation, Proof-Reading, and other 
Valuable Information. Cloth, 75 cents. 

The Temperance Reformation. Its 
History from the first Temperance Soci- 
ety in the United States. By Rev. J. 
Armstrong. With Portrait. $1.50. 

Ways of Life, showing the Right Way 
and the Wrong Way. By Rev. G. S. 
Weaver. Muslin, $1. 

Weaver's Works for the Young:. 

Comprising " Hopes and Helps for the 
Youu]^ of both Sexes," " Aims and Aids 
for Girls and Young Women," "Ways 
of Life : or, the Right Way and the 
Wrong Way." A great work. $3, 

Wedlock ; or, the Right Relations of the 
Sexes. Disclosing the Laws of Conjugal 
Selection, and showing who may and 
who may not Marry. For both Sexes. 
By S. R. Wells. Plain, $1.50 : gilt, $2. 

Capital Punishment; or, the Proper 
Treatment of Criminals. Single copies, 
10 cents. Education of the Heart. 
By Hon. Schuyler Colfax. 10 cents. 
Father Mathew, the Temperance 
Apostle, his Portrait, Character, and 
Biography. 10 cents. 



We liaye all works on Phonography and a large stock of Mecha-nical 
and Scientific Books for sale. Any book wherever published may be 
ordered at advertised price, and will be promptly sent, by return post, 
from this office. English, French, Spanish and German Works, imported 
to order. Agents wanted. Address, S. R. Wells, 389 Broadway, N, Y. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS^] 

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